Animal Behavior

1. Animal Behavior Life Science 2010 鄭先祐(Ayo) 製作

2. Ethology and comparative psychology • The modern study of behavior has taken two distinct routes in this century -- one European, one American. Fig 24.1 Two of the bounders of modern ethology (a) Konrad Lorenz Animal Behavior

3. Fig 24.1 Two of the bounders of modern ethology (b) Niko Tinbergen • The European approach was called ethology. Its goal was to understand behavior by study its cause, development, evolution, and function through the observation of animals in the wild, or under somewhat natural conditions. Animal Behavior

4. American approach • The American approach was called comparative psychology. • Its goal was to understand behavior by studying animals in the laboratory under carefully controlled conditions. • Its focus was learning, and its primary animal was the Norway rat. Animal Behavior

5. The definition of Instincts (本能) • The perception of something in the environment (a releaser) triggers a reaction in a center in the central nervous system(the innate releasing mechanism) that then cause the performance of the instinctive act, sometimes composed of very stereotyped movements (fixed action patterns). Animal Behavior

6. Fig. 24.2 • A male European robin in breeding condition will attack a tuft of red feathers (一叢紅色羽毛) placed in his territory. Animal Behavior

7. Fig. 24.4 Simplified diagram of how a fixed action pattern can be triggered. The releaser is perceived by some sort of receptor, which triggers the IRM to activate certain muscles, thereby producing an instinctive movement that usually involves fixed action patterns. Animal Behavior

8. Fig. 24.3 The scratching movements of dogs, as well as many other vertebrates, are considered fixed action patterns. Animal Behavior

9. Learning (學習) • Learning is a change in behavior, based on experience. Fig. 24.5 Chimpanzees are highly social creatures that live in a complex, variable, and changing world. Intelligence is important under such circumstances. Animal Behavior

10. Essay 24.1 The advantage of forgetting • Savants, a special class of retardates(智力退化), have very low IQs, but some are able to accomplish incredible mathematical feats(技藝), such as multiplying 2 five-figure numbers in their heads. • Others can immediately tell you the day of the week on which Christmas day fell in 1492 or any day in any year. (記憶) Animal Behavior

11. A mnemoist • A mnemoist (a Russian profession) would sometimes memorize lines of 50 words. • Once, in just a few moments, he memorized the nonsense formula • Nd2(853/vx)(2762/n2v)(86x/273)(n2b)(rd) = sv (1625/322)(r2s5) • Fifteen years later, upon request, he repeated the entire formula without a single mistake. Animal Behavior

12. Essay 24.1 • Why haven't been selected for so that by now we can all, more or less, perform such feats? Animal Behavior

13. Habituation (習慣) • Habituation is , in a sense, learning not to respond to a stimulus. • The first time an animal encounters a stimulus, it may respond vigorously. • But if the stimulus is presented over and over without consequence, the response to it gradually lessens and may finally disappear altogether. (Fig. 24.6) Animal Behavior

14. Fig. 24.6 As animals become accustomed to a stimulus, habituation may occur. Animal Behavior

15. Classical conditioning(制約，情境化) • Classical conditioning was first described by the famed Russian biologist Ivan Pavlov. • The response to a normal stimulus comes to be elicited by a substitute stimulus. Animal Behavior

16. Fig. 24.7 Upon presentation of a light, meat powder would be blown into the dog's mouth, causing it to salivate. Animal Behavior

17. Fig.24.7 (b) in the first graph that the dog salivated at maximal levels after only eight trails. When the experiment was reversed and food no longer followed the light, the dog stopped salivating after only nine trails. Animal Behavior

18. Operant conditioning • In operant conditioning, the reinforcement follows the behavioral response. In other words, the animal must do something. • In the 1930s, psychologist B. F. Skinner demonstrated operant conditioning by employing a device now called a Skinner box (Fig. 24.8) Animal Behavior

19. Fig. 24.8 (a) B. F. Skinner, one of the most important twentieth-century psychologists. Animal Behavior

20. Fig. 24.8 a Skinner box, which is used to demonstrate operant conditioning. Animal Behavior

21. Skinner box • An animal placed inside a Skinner box must learn to press a small bar in order to receive a pellet of food from an automatic dispenser. • 開始的時候是隨機動作，當觸動到按鈕，有食物下來，動物開始學習到觸動按鈕有食物下來的情境。動物就會常常去觸動。 • 倘若每次觸動都會有，且非常的穩定。動物會有愈來愈放心的現像。觸動頻率會減少。 Animal Behavior

22. Operant conditioning • 倘若食物的供應轉變成不穩定，有時有，但有時沒有。 • 動物的心情似乎變成有點緊張。動物會增加去觸動按鈕的頻率。 • 甚至會隨時一再的觸動。沒有時間作其它事情，譬如出外散步。 Animal Behavior

23. Fig. 24.9 In classical conditioning, a desirable commodity, such as food, comes to be associated with an irrelevant signal. Animal Behavior

24. Fig. 24.9(b) In operant conditioning, the animal can act when given a signal, but only one action is rewarded. Animal Behavior

25. Fig. 24.10 Although young birds have the innate ability to fly, they can improve with practice. Animal Behavior

26. Fig. 24.10(b) A younger bird crashes headfirst into the ground. Animal Behavior

27. Imprinting (印痕) • Critical period, a window of time when the young are particularly sensitive to certain aspects of their environment. • At this time, the goslings, and the young of many other species as well, learn the traits of whatever is around them. • Imprinting：the animal learns to make a specific response to certain aspects of its environment. Animal Behavior

28. Fig. 24.11 Konrad Lorenz leading a group of goslings (小鵝) that had imprinted on him. Animal Behavior

29. Fig. 24.12 A crane (鶴)imprinted on humans.The female whooping crane has been hand-reared and therefore had imprinted on humans. • She rejected the mate provided for her but could be enticed to lay eggs (artificially fertilized) by "dancing" with humans. Animal Behavior

30. Orientation and Navigation • Orientation is simply facing in the right direction • navigation involves finding one's way from point A to point B. • 這是隨季節遷移的動物必備的能力。 • 於籠子內的候鳥於遷移季節到來時，會顯現出不斷的向遷移方向衝擊的現像。 Animal Behavior

31. Kramer experiments • Kramer surmised that they were orienting according to the position of the sun. • To test this idea, he blocked their view of the sun and used mirrors to change its apparent position. • The birds oriented with respect to the position of the new "sun". Animal Behavior

32. Fig. 24.15 Kramer's orientation cage. • The birds can see only sky through the cage roof. • The direction of the sun can be shifted with mirrors. Animal Behavior

33. Kramer put identical food boxes around the cage, with food in only one of the boxes. • The boxes were stationary, and the one containing food was always at the same point of the compass. • 無論如何轉換位置，birds went directly to the correct food box. • 但若是在陰天，the birds were disoriented and had trouble locating their food box. Animal Behavior

34. Biological clock • If the artificial sun remained stationary, the birds would shift their direction with respect to it at a rate of about 15 degrees per hour, the sun's rate of movement across the sky. • This meant that some sort of biological clock was operating, and a very precise clock at that. Animal Behavior

35. Essay 24.2 Biological clocks • 將倉鼠放在微亮的暗室，讓其無法得知日夜運行。 • 但倉鼠仍就會在夜晚的時間，出來運動。 • 觀察多日，每日情況都一樣。 • Circadian rhythms Animal Behavior

36. 調整周期 • Although biological rhythms continue without environmental cues, they are not completely independent of such cues. • Light-dark cycle will set, or entrain, the rhythm so that its period length matches that of the environment. Animal Behavior

37. Fig. 24.14 A pigeon with electrical coils on its head. Pigeons can detect slight magnetic fields and that magnetism can influence their orientation. Animal Behavior

38. Social Behavior • The famous student of animal behavior, Jane Goodall (Fig. 24.15), who has spent much of her life among the chimpanzees of East Africa's Gombe Stream Preserve. Animal Behavior

39. Fig. 24.16 Fighting can be a dangerous activity among some species. Animal Behavior

40. Fig. 24.17 (a) a golden-fronted woodpecker • (b) a red-bellied woodpecker 兩種很相近，但相互並不 interbreed Animal Behavior

41. Fig. 24.18 a raccoon approached a hare in the darkness and the hare leaped over the raccoon . • They may have known each other. There is evidence that animals of different species that share the same area may react to each other individually. Animal Behavior

42. Fig. 24.19 Male rattlesnakes fighting.Each could kill the other, yet they do not bite. • The fight is more a test of will and strength as the snakes press against each other, belly to belly. Animal Behavior

43. Fig. 24.20 Hyenas may kill any stranger they find on their territory. Animal Behavior

44. Fig. 24.21 Porpoises are intelligent creatures that often cooperate. Here a young porpoise swims beneath its mother. Animal Behavior

45. Fig. 24.22 Musk oxen live above the Arctic cycle and are preyed upon by wolves. If attacked, they immediately form a circle with the adults facing outward and calves inside. Animal Behavior

46. Fig. 24.23 Wolves often cooperate to bring down prey, but then the dominant individuals feed first. Animal Behavior

47. Fig. 24.24 Leaf cutter ants of the tropics carefully excise section of leaves, which they then take to the colony where the plant material is used to grow fungi on which the ants feed. Animal Behavior

48. Altruism • An activity that benefits another organism at the individual's own expense. • It seems to be common among animals. • How did it evolve? Fig. 24.25 救難犬 Animal Behavior

49. Fig. 24.26 • Kin selection is the process by which an individual increases its kinds of genes in the population by helping relatives. Animal Behavior

50. ←Since they show altruistic behavior to each other's offspring, more offspring from each population survive. • ↑Since they do not show altruistic behavior to each other's offspring, fewer offspring from each population survive. Animal Behavior