Conditioning and Learning

Conditioning and Learning February 2016

Non-Associative Learning Habituation Sensitization Difference between learned and unlearned behavior Law of effect -Thorndike Classical Conditioning Operant conditioning Skinner, Pavlov Acquisition Extinction Spontaneous recovery Generalization Discrimination Higher-order conditioning Effects of reinforcement and punishment Reinforcement and omission training Shaping Behavior modification Active and passive avoidance Reinforcement schedules, delay of reinforcement, motivation Graphs used to show results of experiments Principles of learning and practical applications Emotional learning Taste aversion Coping versus helplessness Biological Factors Mirror Neurons Insight Latent learning Social learning Cognitive Learning AP Outline Key Terms

Insight into understanding behavior And how to manage behavior Comes with an understanding of how we learn. We learn through- Conditioning, observation, and experience Most learning is done by observing and imitating actions of others Basics Learning and Conditioning

Definitions • Learning is a relatively permanentchange in behavior due to experience. “Learning is an adaptive process through which experience modifies pre-existing behavior and understanding” • Reinforcement • any event that increases the probability that a response will occur again. • Response- is any identifiable behavior • Can be observable actions • Can be internal = heartbeat increases

Habituation We are naturally in-tune to stimuli- loud noises, special tastes, pain… Novel Stimuli- things we have not experienced before, attract our attention (perception) Habituation= is a form of adaptation, a form of learning, that “Our attention to unchanging stimuli decreases over time… After our response to a stimulus has habituated, it may quickly return if the stimulus changes

Habituation or Sensory Adaptation • Sensory Adaptation: • Unchanging stimuli has a reduced effect. • Habituation: • (Coolidge Effect) • “If you are exposed to the same stimulus over and over your response decreases.”

Sensitization Sensitization- simple form of learning, is an increase in responsiveness to stimuli… example exaggerated responses to unexpected, potentially threatening sights or sounds, especially during periods of emotional arousal… Sensitization and habituation help us adapt to our environment.

Opponent Process Theory Richard Solomon (researcher) Explains how habituation occurs “new stimulus events- especially those that arouse strong positive or negative emotions- disrupts psychological homeostasis.” This disruption creates an opposite process that counteracts the disruption and eventually restores equilibrium. … eventually if the stimuli occurs often enough the opponent process occurs more rapidly. Eventually it will suppress the initial response…”

Basic Idea: Behavior or Learning can be explained by the unconscious pairing of stimuli Classical Conditioning relates to stimuli that creates a reflexive (biological) response/behavior “A Neutral Stimulus is repeatedly paired with a stimulus that reliably provokes a response.” A Neutral Stimulus only by association begins to elicit a response. Associational Learning:Classical Conditioning

Antecedents and Consequences • Relates to what happens before and after a response. • Antecedent- events that precede a response • Consequence- effects that follow a response

Classical Conditioning • “Before a response” • “A Neutral Stimulus is repeatedly paired with a stimulus that reliably provokes a response.” • A Neutral Stimulus only by association begins to elicit a response. • “Antecedent events become associated with one another” • A stimulus that does not produce a response is linked with one that does. • Learning occurs when new stimulus elicits a response

Classical Conditioning Example • Stimulus that reliably triggers a response- • Puff of Air to the Eye -- causes a blink (Natural Stimulus) (reflex- non-learned response) • Sound of horn is paired with puff of air • Repetition of paired stimulus causes association of horn with puff of air. Soon horn will make people blink

Create an Example of Classical Conditioning • Maximum two people • No repeat examples • UCS • NS • UCR • CS • CR

UCS _pinch _____---UCR___ anxiety___ • NS __snap fing___+ _pinch ___UCS----- UCR— anxiety • Expectancy- • CS— comp  CR _ sal ___

Key Terms reinforced • (NS) Neutral Stimulus= Bell • (CS) Conditioned Stimulus- a stimulus that = learning and evokes a desired response – (NS becomes CS) • (US) Unconditioned Stimulus- or natural stimulus=meat stimulus innately capable of eliciting a response. • (UR) Unconditioned Response= non-learned, reflex, innate

Principles of Classical Conditioning • Acquisition • Higher Order Conditioning • Expectancies • Extinction • Spontaneous Recovery • Generalization • Discrimination • Stimulus Discrimination • Conditioned Emotional Response • Vicarious + Second Hand Conditioning • Aversive Conditioning

Principles of Classical ConditioningHow conditioning occurs. • Acquisition- or training – a conditioned response must be reinforced (strengthened) • Classical conditioning is reinforced when the conditioned stimulus is paired with an Unconditioned Response. • * Timing: classical conditioning works best when the conditioned stimulus preceedsthe unconditioned stimulus. (tight time sequence is best) • Higher-Order Conditioning- once a response is learned it can be used like an Unconditioned stimulus and be paired with another neutral stimulus to form a new conditioned stimulus (advertisers use)

Principles of Classical ConditioningHow conditioning occurs. • Expectancy: Expectation about how events are interconnected • Extinction: Weakening of a conditioned response through removal of reinforcement • Spontaneous Recovery: Reappearance of a learned response following apparent extinction

Conditioning Principles • Stimulus Generalization: A tendency to respond to stimuli that are similar, but not identical, to a conditioned stimulus (e.g., responding to a buzzer or a hammer banging when the conditioning stimulus was a bell) • Stimulus Discrimination: The ability to respond differently to various stimuli (e.g., Rudy will respond differently to various bells (alarms, school, timer))

Classical Conditioning • Is passive. • It happens to the learner when a US follows a CS. • It depends on reflex responses

Conditioned Emotional Response • Emotional responses may be linked to new stimuli • Pain in dentist office -thought causes reaction • Response of Involuntary Autonomic Nervous system “Fight or flight response” • Linked with new stimuli and situations through Classical Conditioning

Learned Fears are Phobias • Phobias are based on Emotional Conditioning • A fear that persists even when no realistic danger exists. • Animals, waters, heights, thunder, fire, bugs • Therapy for phobias includes Desensitization- • Is used to extinguish fears- anxiety and phobias • Includes gradual exposure to phobic stimuli- short term and more time.

Example of Learning • Teaching a dog a trick- • Reinforce response by -giving dog food

Classical Conditioning and Ivan Pavlov • Russian physiologist who studied digestion • Used dogs to study salivation when dogs were presented with meat powder • Also known as Pavlovian or Respondent Conditioning • Reflex: Automatic, non-learned response

In operant conditioning, a response that is followed by a reinforcing consequence becomes more likely to occur on future occasions. In the example shown, a dog learns to sit up when it hears a whistle

Fig. 8.2 An apparatus for Pavlovian conditioning. A tube carries saliva from the dog’s mouth to a lever that activates a recording device (far left). During conditioning, various stimuli can be paired with a dish of food placed in front of the dog. The device pictured here is more elaborate than the one Pavlov used in his early experiments.

Taste Aversion Classical Conditioning to create an aversive reaction/association to something and Nausea Example of coyotes and tainted meat…

Reinforcement and Response • Reinforcement- any event that increases the probability that a response will occur again. • Response- is any identifiable behavior • Can be observable actions • Can be internal = heartbeat increases

Operant Conditioning • Responsesfollowed by reinforcement cause frequency of response to increase. • Learning is based on consequences of responding • Responses are followed by reinforcers • Example: • Wear a hat--get compliments  Wear hat _(Antecedent)_(Reinforcement)____more get more complements (Consequence)

Operant Conditioning Edward Thorndike (Law of Effect) B.F. Skinner • Applies to all living creatures • Can be used to alter behavior • We associate responses with their consequences • Acts that are reinforced tend to be repeated. • Thorndike Law of Effect: The probability of a response is altered by the effect it has) and responses that produce a discomforting effect become less likely to occur again • Learning is strengthened each time a response is followed by a satisfying state of affairs.

Operant Conditioning Characteristics • Learner Actively “Operates on” the environment • Refers mainly to learning voluntary responses • Example: T.V. Remote Pushing the button is reinforced by gaining the result

Positive Reinforcement • Idea that reward affects learning • Operant Reinforcers = any event that follows a response and increases its probability of occurring again.

Fig. 8.9 The Skinner box. This simple device, invented by B. F. Skinner, allows careful study of operant conditioning. When the rat presses the bar, a pellet of food or a drop of water is automatically released. (A photograph of a Skinner box appears in Chapter 1.) Conditioning Chamber Animals take action to satisfy needs. Behavior causes consequences  reinforces behavior

Vicarious + Second Hand Conditioning • Occurs when we learn to respond emotionally to a stimulus by observing another person’s reactions. • We can be conditioned vicariously

Operant Learning • Based on information and expectancy • A certain response (behavior)- will have a certain effect at certain times

Operant Conditioning Characteristics • Contingent Reinforcement • Reinforcement works best when given • after - desired response has occurred. • Timing of Reinforcement is also important- Operant Reinforcement is most effective when it rapidly follows a correct response. • Delay in reinforcement = less response • Size of Reinforcement effects behavior…

Shaping • The gradual molding of response to a desired behavior • (animals taught to perform) • Beginning incremental- reinforcement till desired response occurs • Step by step approximations- are refined • “Successive Approximations”

Operant Extinction • Learned responses that are not reinforced gradually fade away • Takes time • Spontaneous recovery still works

Superstitious Behavior • Unnecessary responses associated with successful Reinforcers • Appear to produce reinforcement • Skinner- pigeon study • Varied ratio of reinforcement • The organism associates a behavior with reinforcement

The difference between Punishment and Negative Reinforcement: • Reinforcement is to INCREASE frequency of behavior. • Punishment DECREASES behavior.So it's just what you do to increase or decrease behavior. • Positive means ADD (like in math) and negative means SUBTRACT. So Punishment is ADDING something to DECREASE behavior. Negative Reinforcement is SUBTRACTING something to INCREASE behavior. • Ex: Positive Punishment- ADDING detention to DECREASE tardiness if someone is late to class (ADD aversivestimulus) • Negative Reinforcement-SUBTRACTING chores in order to INCREASE frequency of good grades when a son or daughter • brings home good report card (SUBTRACT aversive stimulus) • People like to get Negative Reinforcement, whereas people usually do not like to get Positive Punishment. • You just have to look at whether you want the behavior to increase or decrease in frequency, and whether something is being added or subtracted in order to get to that point.

Negative Reinforcement • Making a response removes an unpleasant event • Increases responding by ending discomfort • Headache-discomfort---take aspirin headache will be negatively reinforced • Rat given electric shock-presses bar to remove shock <removes unpleasant event> • Punishment is not negative reinforcement

Both Positive and Negative reinforcement • Lead to increases in response (behaviors) frequencies • Negative – action to end discomfort • Positive- action to get reward

Punishment • Decreases responding • Refers to following a response with an aversive <unpleasant> consequence • Punishment decreases the response or the likelihood that the response will occur again. • Punishment occurs when a reinforcer or positive state of affairs is removed example- privileges

Operant Reinforcers • Primary Reinforcers • Secondary Reinforcers • Feedback

Primary Reinforcers • Natural, Non-learned, Rooted in Biology • Produce comfort, End discomfort • Fill an immediate physical need- food, water, sex • Actions reflect primary Reinforcers

Intra-Cranial Stimulation • Direct activation of pleasure centers • Example- Rat Experiments • Primary Reinforcer • Brain and Bio-psychology • Electrodes stimulate pleasure centers in certain parts of the hypothalamus • Dopamine = drugs activate pleasure centers • All this relates to reinforcement, example rats will continuously press a bar when electrodes are stimulating part of the hypothalamus.

Secondary Reinforcers • Learned • $, praise, attention, approval • Success, affection, grades • Can be associated with a primary reinforcer (food + secondary –praise) • Token reinforcer- a tangible , secondary reinforcer can be exchanged for primary reinforcer • Don’t lose reinforcing value-easily

Social Reinforcers • Learned desires for attention and approval • Attention + approval can change the behavior

Feedback • Definition: Knowing level of degree of achieving desired results • Learning needs responsive environment + information • Knowledge of results information about the effect a response had • Provides rapid learning • Improves learning and performance • Should be Frequent, Immediate, and detailed

Conditioning and Learning