TICK TOCK: Time-of-Day Preference and academic performance

1. TICK TOCK: Time-of-Day Preference and academic performance Lisa Freeman Research Methods in Instructional Technology EDIT 6900 Dr. Lloyd Rieber University of Georgia April 23, 2008

2. Okay, so what’s the problem? • One class average is consistently lower than other class averages of the same subject • Test scores show students in that class have the skills and abilities to do the work • Class with the lowest average is the last class of the day

3. Why is a study NECESSARY? • We must address the consistently lower class average maintained by the last period class as compared to the class averages of the first three classes. • We must answer: “What are the effects of class schedule (time of day) and time-of-day preference on student academic performance in a seventh grade class?”

4. Our personal time clock • Human performance affected by body’s circadian rhythm • What “sets” the body clock? • Biology • Genetics • Body temperature • Age • Children – early birds • Teens/young adults – owls • Older adults – early birds • Environment • Seasons • Exposure to sunlight (Gilbert, 2006)

5. Was Benjamin Franklin a morning-type? “God helps those who help themselves” “The early bird catches the worm” (Kirby et al., 2006)

6. What does Prior Research say about our problem? • Theories acknowledge individual differences in circadian rhythms (Freeman et al., 1934) • Variations during circadian cycle affect performance (Kleitman et al., 1938) • Time-of-day preference gives rise to “morning person, night owl, and so on” (Callan, 1999) • Adolescents move toward Eveningness at about age 13 (Kim et al., 2002) • Circadian shifts could affect academic performance at non-optimal times (Kim et al., 2002) • Decline in early-afternoon functioning due to circadian rhythm (Klein, 2004) • Adolescents tested at optimal times at an advantage (May et al., 2005); Evening-types tested at non-optimal times at a disadvantage (Goldstein et al., 2007) • Academic achievement varies with class time of day (Klein, 2004) • Delayed school start times result in improvement in overall student attention (Kubow et al., 1999) • Instruction should occur at times that match time-of-day preference (Kirby et al., 2006) Time-of-Day Preferences in Adolescents Time of Day and Adolescent Academic Performance

7. Let’s get to the root of our problem: a mixed-method approach Research Question: “What are the effects of class schedule (time of day) and time-of-day preference on student academic performance in a seventh grade class?”

8. Let’s get to the root of our problem:a mixed-method approach • Sample Size/Context • 372 twelve- to thirteen-year old students • Seventh grade regular education classrooms • Middle school in Gwinnett County, Georgia • Intact classes – no random sampling or group assignments

9. Let’s get to the root of our problem:a mixed-method approach Survey: Children’s Morningness-Eveningness Preferences scale • 10-item multiple choice self-reporting instrument • Scores range from 10 (extreme Eveningness) to 42 (extreme Morningness) • Cut-off scores: • 32+ - Morningness • 24- - Eveningness (Carskadon et al., 1993)

10. Let’s get to the root of our problem:a mixed-method approach • Time-series (quasi-experimental) design • Baseline data: county-standardized quarterly final exams grades for last academic period • Intervention: class schedules modified for two quarters based upon students’ time-of-day preferences • Observation: county-standardized quarterly final exams grades for the intervention period

11. Let’s get to the root of our problem:a mixed-method approach If significant change is shown, we can conclude time-of-day preference affects our students’ academic performance

12. What must be done? • Our primary goal is to improve student academic success • Instruction and class schedule based upon time-of-day preference

13. references Callan, R. J. (1999). Effects of matching and mismatching students' time-of-day preferences. Journal of Educational Research, 92(5), 295-299. Carskadon, M. A., Vieira, C., & Acebo, C. (1993). Association between puberty and delayed phase preference. Sleep, 16(3), 258-262. Freeman, G., & Hovland, C. (1934). Diurnal variation in performance and related physiological processes. Psychological Bulletin, 31(10), 777-799.

14. references Gilbert, K. (2006). Your personal time zone. Psychology Today, 39(4), 56. Goldstein, D., Hahn, C. S., Hasher, L., Wiprzycka, U. J., & Zelazo, P. D. (2007). Time of day, intellectual performance, and behavioral problems in morning versus evening type adolescents: Is there a synchrony effect? Personality and Individual Differences, 42(3), 431-440.

15. references Kim, S., Dueker, G. L., Hasher, L., & Goldstein, D. (2002). Children's time of day preference: Age, gender, and ethnic differences. Personality and Individual Differences, 33(7), 1083-1090. Kirby, E. G., & Kirby, S. L. (2006). Improving task performance: The relationship between morningness and proactive thinking. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 36(11), 2715-2729. Klein, J. (2004). Planning middle school schedules for improved attention and achievement. Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research, 48(4), 441-450.

16. references Kleitman, N., Titelbaum, S., & Feiveson, P. (1938). The effect of body temperature on reaction time. American Journal of Physiology, 121(2), 495-501. Kubow, B. K., Wahlstrom, K. L., & Bemis, A. E. (1999). Starting time and school life: Reflection from educators and students. Phi Beta Kappan, 80(5), 366-371. May, C. P., Hasher, L., & Foong, N. (2005). Implicit memory, age, and time of day. Psychological Science, 16(2), 96-100.