Scientific Revolution & the Enlightenment

1. Scientific Revolution & the Enlightenment Chapter 16 Sec 1 – Chapter 20 Sec 2 & 4

2. Scientific Revolution

3. Medieval Views • Little difference between science and magic • Truth based upon Greek & Roman thought and the Bible. • However, the Bible primary authority. • European scholars start to question ideas of ancient thinkers & the church by observing nature for themselves. • Roger Bacon one of the first

4. Geocentric Theory • Concept that earth is the center of the universe • Moon, Sun and planets all moved in perfect circular patterns around earth • Fixed stars with the Heaven beyond • Based on common sense observations • God placed the earth in the center for life to take place

5. New Way of Thought • Scientific Revolution: A new way of thinking about the natural world. • Based upon observations of the natural world and willingness to question beliefs. • Observation and experimental data. • Need better tools and techniques. • Barometer, telescope, thermometer • Used Mathematics and related experiments to verify results • Becomes Scientific Method

6. Reasons for…. New Way of thought • Impact of the Crusades • Exposed Europe to Muslim advances • Astronomy, Physics, and Mathematics • Impact of Exploration • New discoveries = possibility of new truths • Printing Press helps spread challenging ideas

7. Results….. Of New Way of thought • Need for better instruments • Navigation and geographic measurements. • Scientific instruments • Observations that did not agree with ancient beliefs • Desire to know more than what seemed to be the “limit”

8. Heliocentric Theory • Sun-centered theory - Heliocentric • Nicolaus Copernicus- Astronomer • Old Greek theory – Sun is the center. • After 25 years observation determines stars and planets revolve around the sun. • Contradicted religious views – So discovery was not published until much later – 1543.

9. Heliocentric Theory • Johannes Kepler- Mathematician • Provided proof that Copernicus was correct. • Mathematical laws govern the movements of the planets in an elliptical orbit, not in circles. • Not easily accepted, God created universe

10. Heliocentric Theory • Galileo : Made many significant advances for science • Built a better telescope • to better observe far off objects • Determined that not all heavenly objects revolved around the earth. • Church asked him not to defend idea that earth moves around the sun. • Later brought before Roman Inquisition • ‘vehemently’ suspect of heresy • Imprisoned, later changed to house arrest • Cleared by the Vatican in 1992 • Died 1642

11. Church Conflict • Contradicted the bible • Psalm 93:1, 96:10, & 1 Chronicles 16:30 • "the world is firmly established, it cannot be moved." • Psalm 104:5 • "the LORD set the earth on its foundations; it can never be moved." • Ecclesiastes 1:5 • "And the sun rises and sets and returns to its place" etc. • If people believed the church could be wrong about the nature of the universe, they could question other church teachings as well. • Could lose members • Could lose funds

12. Galileo • Advances of Galileo: • Law of pendulum • each swing takes same amount of time • Falling objects accelerate at a fixed & predictable rate • Telescope • 3x magnification • Later up to 32x magnification • Discovered moons orbiting Jupiter • Rings around Saturn • Observed sunspots • Observed mountains and craters on moon • Observed the Milky Way

13. Scientific Method A logical procedure for gathering and testing ideas

14. Scientific Method • Francis Bacon • Used science to generate a practical knowledge to improve people’s lives • Empiricism • use experiments or observational data to find conclusions • Urged other scientists to experiment as well • Died as a result of one of his experiments • Attempt to use snow to preserve meat • Came down ill after stuffing a bird with snow

15. Scientific Method • Rene Descartes • Relied on mathematics and logic • Used strict reasoning to arrive at other basic truths • Observation, experimentation, with general laws expressed mathematically will explain the natural world. • Everything should be doubted until proved by reason • I think, therefore I am. • The only thing know for certain was self-existence • Developed analytical geometry. • Mathematics: The basis of understanding and explaining the natural world

16. Scientific Advancements • Scientific Instruments • New tools = precise observations and measurements • Microscope • Invented by Zacharias Janssen (Dutch, 1590) • Bacteria observed in 1670 • Antoni van Leeuwenhoek - Dutch • Red blood cells observed • Life did not spawn spontaneously (maggots, etc)

17. Scientific Advancements • Barometer • Invented by Torricelli (1643) • Galileo’s student • Measures atmospheric pressure • Used to predict weather changes • Thermometer • Gabriel Fahrenheit (1714, Dutch) • made the first mercury thermometer • Water freezes at 32*, boils at 212* • Anders Celsius (1742, Swede) • created another scale for the mercury thermometer • Water freezes at 0*, boils at 100*

18. Scientific Advancements • Dissection: • Middle Ages • Human anatomy based upon Greek physician Galen • Galen based his thoughts upon the anatomy of animals (pigs) • Vesalius (Flemish) : • Pioneered the study of Anatomy • dissected human corpses, wrote seven volume work ‘On the Fabric of the Human Body ‘ • Detailed drawings of human organs, bones and muscle and how they work together in the body. • Proved that many of Galen’s assumptions were wrong.

19. Scientific Advancements • William Harvey : • showed that the heart acted as a pump to circulate blood • described the function of blood vessels. • Wrote “On the Motion of the Heart and Blood in Animals.” • Edward Jenner : • introduced vaccination for small-pox using cow-pox • Practice had previously existed in Asia

20. Cow Pock - 1802

21. Scientific Advancements • Elements: • Aristotle • Four elements: earth, air, fire, and water • Robert Boyle • Founder of modern Chemistry • Used Scientific Method • Challenged Aristotle’s idea • Matter made up of smaller particles joined together in different ways. • Boyle’s Law – Explains how the volume, temperature and pressure of gas affect each other • Most important contribution to chemistry • Joseph Priestley and Antoine Lavoisier • Separated gas from air – Gas named oxygen.

22. Notable Scientists • Gottfried Liebnitz • Developed calculus – but independently of Newton. • Invented the Binary System • Basis for all computer architectures • Philosophy • Optimism – Idea that God created the best possible world and always chooses the best

23. Notable Scientists • Isaac Newton: • Explained laws of motion • All physical objects were affected equally by the same forces • Disproved Aristotle’s idea that one set of physical laws governed the earth and another set governed the rest of the universe • Law of universal gravitation • Every object in the universe attracts every other object • The degree of attraction depends on the mass/distance of the objects • Wrote Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy (Principia) • one of the most important scientific books ever written • Gravitation and laws of motion • Universe is a giant clock • All the parts work together perfected in a way that could be expressed mathematically • Believed that God was the creator of this orderly universe and the clock-maker that set everything into motion

24. The Enlightenment

25. Two Views on Government • Enlightenment: Age of Reason (mid-1700s) • People looking for laws which govern human behavior • Hoped to apply reason and the scientific method to all aspects of society • government, religion, economics, and education • Thomas Hobbes: English Civil War • Wrote ‘Leviathan’ • Human Nature: all humans are naturally • selfish and wicked • Government kept order and prevented war • Social contract: people exchanged their rights for • law and order • Absolute monarch imposed order and • demanded obedience • Best form of government

26. Two Views on Government • John Locke: Glorious Revolution • Wrote ‘Two Treatises of Government’ • Human Nature: people could learn from experience and improve themselves • Ability to govern their own affairs and to look after the welfare of society • Believed in separation of Church and State • Social Contract • People and government are bound to each other by consent • Contrasts ‘divine right’ • Man is born free and equal • Natural Rights – life, liberty, property • Government’s purpose is to protect these rights • Failure to do so = citizens’ right to overthrow it • Consent of the people is the foundation of modern democracy

27. Notable Philosophes & Ideas • Voltaire: French writer • Fought for tolerance, reason, freedom of religious belief, and freedom of speech • Was arrested several times for criticism of the govt. • Used the pen as a deadly weapon vs. intolerance, prejudice, and superstition • “I disprove of what you say, but I will defend to the death your right to say it.”

28. Notable Philosophes & Ideas • Montesquieu: French writer • Studied political liberty • Wrote “On the Spirit of Laws”. • Ancient Rome: collapse directly related to its loss of political liberties • Separation of powers: Based upon British government • Executive power=king and his ministers • Legislative=Parliament, law-making power • Judicial=English courts/judges • Power should be a check to power • Checks and balances: Each branch of government would serve as a check on the other two • Serves as the basis of the Constitution of the United States

29. Notable Philosophes & Ideas • Jean Jacques Rousseau (Swiss): • Committed to individual freedom • Argued that civilization corrupted people’s natural goodness • Man is born free, and everywhere he is in chains • People had lived as free and equal individuals • Strongest forced them to obey unjust laws • Freedom and equality were destroyed • The only good government was one that was formed by the people • Guided by the general will of society – direct democracy • Legitimate government came from the consent of the governed • All people were equal

30. Notable Philosophes & Ideas • CesareBonesanaBeccaria : Italian • Wrote “On Crimes and Punishments.” • Railed against common abuses of justice • torture of witnesses and suspects • irregular proceedings in trials • cruel and arbitrary punishment • Person should receive a speedy trial • torture should never be used • punishment should be based on the seriousness of crime • capital punishment should be abolished • Justice should be based on the principle that governments should seek the greatest good for the greatest number of people

31. Notable Philosophes & Ideas • Mary Wollstonecraft : • Wrote “A Vindication of the Rights of Woman”. • argued that women like men, need education to become virtuous and useful and bring equality between the sexes • Argued women should have the same political rights as men including right to vote. • Her two novels(Mary: A Fiction and Maria, or, The Wrongs of Woman)criticize traditional women's roles. • Education will make them better mothers

32. Impact of the Enlightenment • Impact of the Enlightenment • Challenged the principle of the Divine Right of Monarchs (Absolutism) • The union of church and state • Unequal social classes • Encouraged Monarchs to make reforms • Inspired the American, Latin and French Revolutions • Helped shape Western civilization • Scientific Revolution gave people the confidence that human reason could solve social problems • People began to openly question their religious beliefs and the teachings of the church • Religious toleration was promoted • Individualism – people looked to themselves instead of the church and royalty for guidance • People used their own ability to reason in order to judge what is right and wrong

33. Spread of Ideas • Salons: • Social gatherings • Philosophers, writers, artists, scientists, and other great intellects met to discuss ideas and enjoy artistic performances • Encyclopedia: Edited by Diderot (1741) • Leading scholars of Europe contributed articles and essays • The most current and enlightened thinking • Science, technology, art, government • Helped educate people all over Europe • Opposed by the Catholic Church: undermined royal authority • encouraged the spirit of revolt • fostered moral corruption, irreligion, and unbelief • Ideas available to a majority of the population • Enlightenment ideas reached middle-class people through newspapers, pamphlets, and songs

34. Enlightened Despots • Enlightenment Despots: • Enlightened – Embraced new ideas and reforms • Despot -- absolute ruler • Frederick the Great (Prussia. 1740-1786) • Friend of Voltaire • Granted many religious freedoms, reduced censorship, and improved education, reformed government • Said “every man must go to heaven his own way.” • Reformed the justice system and abolished the use of torture • Built canals, drained swamps, introduced new crops, such as the potato and turnip, to support peasants • Goal: to serve and strengthen his country

35. Enlightened Despots • Joseph II (Austria, 1780-1790) • Legal reforms and freedom of press • Freedom of worship – even for Protestants, Orthodox Christians, and Jews • Abolished serfdom, required peasants be paid a wage for labor. • Changes reversed after his death

36. Enlightened Despots • Catherine the Great (Russia, 1762-1796) • Took steps to modernize and reform Russia • Corresponded with Voltaire and Diderot • Formed a Commission to review Russia’s laws • Recommended religious toleration, abolishment of torture, and capital punishment • Commission took none of her suggestions • By end of reign • Suppressed peasant revolts, enforced serfdom, practiced religious intolerance • Sought trade access to Black Sea from Ottoman Turks • Divided Poland with Prussia and Austria

37. The End!