OCR Examinations A Level Physical Education A 7875 Module 2565 : Option B2 part 2

1. OCR Examinations A Level Physical Education A 7875 Module 2565 : Option B2 part 2 Psychology of Sport Performance

2. 28 - THE MANAGEMENT OF STRESS 29 - RELAXATION TECHNIQUES 30 - STRESS CONTROL TECHNIQUES - COGNITIVE / BIOFEEDBACK 31 - MENTAL PREPARATION FOR PERFORMANCE MENTAL REHEARSAL / GOAL SETTING 32 - SOCIAL FACILITATION - DIFFERENT TYPES OF AUDIENCE 33 - SOCIAL FACILITATION CO-ACTORS / FACTORS AFFECTING PERFORMANCE 34 - FACILITATION AND INHIBITION 35 - SOCIAL FACILITATION AND EVALUATION APPREHENSION 36 - THE DOMINANT RESPONSE 37 - THE DISTRACTION EFFECT 38 - HOMEFIELD ADVANTAGE - HOME / AWAY EFFECT 39 - AGGRESSION IN SPORT - ASSERTIVE PLAY HOSTILE / INSTRUMENTAL AGGRESSION 40 - CAUSES OF AGGRESSION - PHYSIOLOGICAL AROUSAL 41 - THEORIES OF AGGRESSION 42 - SPECTATOR AGGRESSION 43 - RESPONSIBILITY FOR AGGRESSIVE BEHAVIOUR 44 - PREVENTION OF AGGRESSIVE BEHAVIOUR GOVERNING BODY 45 - PREVENTION OF AGGRESSIVE BEHAVIOUR COACHES / PLAYERS 46 - ATTRIBUTION - WEINER’S MODEL 47 - WEINER’S MODEL LOCUS OF CAUSALITY / STABILITY 48 - ATTRIBUTION SUCCESS / FAILURE / FUTURE EXPECTATIONS 49 - THE ATTRIBUTION PROCESS 50 - LEARNED HELPLESSNESS (LH) ATTRIBUTION RETRAINING Index 3 - SELF-CONFIDENCE AND SELF-EFFICACY 4 - SELF-CONFIDENCE - CONFIDENCE 5 - SELF-CONFIDENCE - LACK OF CONFIDENCE /OVERCONFIDENCE 6 - THE ROLE OF THE COACH 7 - SELF-EFFICACY - BANDURA’S MODEL PERFORMANCE ACCOMPLISHMENTS / VICARIOUS EXPERIENCES 8 - SELF-EFFICACY - BANDURA’S MODEL VERBAL PERSUASION / EMOTIONAL AROUSAL 9 - SELF-CONFIDENCE - WEINBERG’S MODEL 10 - VEALEY’s MODEL OF SPORT CONFIDENCE 11 - CONCENTRATION CUE UTILISATION / USE OF COGNITIVE TECHNIQUES 12 - CONCENTRATION AND ATTENTIONAL STYLES NIDEFFER’S ATTENTIONAL STYLES 13 - AROUSAL - RETICULAR ACTIVATING SYSTEM 14 - AROUSAL AND DRIVE THEORY 15 - INVERTED U THEORY - OPTIMUM AROUSAL 16 - AROUSAL CURVES - EXAMPLES 17 - CATASTROPHE THEORY 18 - TASK DIFFERENCES - OPTIMUM AROUSAL 19 - TASK DIFFERENCES COMPLEX / SKILFULLY DIFFICULT - SIMPLE / GROSS TASKS 20 - ANXIETY - A STATE / TRAIT 21 - STRESS AND STRESSORS 22 - STRESSORS 23 - GENERAL ADAPTATION SYNDROME 24 - PSYCHOLOGICAL STRESS EXTERNAL / INTERNAL / COMPETITIVE ORIENTATION 25 - EUSTRESS 26 - EFFECT OF STRESS ON PERFORMANCE - INHIBITION PERFORMANCE OF SKILLS / CONCENTRATION / STRESS 27 - SYMPTOMS OF STRESS - PHYSIOLOGICAL / PSYCHOLOGICAL BEHAVIOURAL SYMPTOMS INDEX

3. SELF-CONFIDENCE SELF-EFFICACY Self Confidence SELF-CONFIDENCE AND SELF-EFFICACY

4. CONFIDENCE Self Confidence SELF-CONFIDENCE • arouses positive emotions • allows the athlete to • remain calm under pressure • be assertive when required • facilitates concentration • enables focus on the important aspects of a task • enables the setting of challenging but realistic goals • increases effort • affects game strategies • a confident player plays to win even if it means taking risks • affects psychological momentum • a confident athlete take each point or play at a time • and never gives up • even when defeat is imminent

5. OVERCONFIDENCE OR FALSE CONFIDENCE is dangerous because it can lead to inadequate preparation low motivation low arousal which are difficult to correct when competition is under way Self Confidence SELF-CONFIDENCE LACK OF CONFIDENCE • causes stress under pressure • causes concentration on outside stressors • mistakes • spectators • causes the setting of goals which are either too easy or too hard • causes the athlete to try to avoid mistakes • non-confident athletes find it difficult to reverse negative psychological momentum • once things start to go wrong • it is difficult to think positively

6. ROLE OF THE COACH develop self-confidence and self-efficacy through successful achievement ensure early and continued success by careful selection of goals tasks levels of competition focusing on successful personal performance not on winning Self Confidence THE ROLE OF THE COACH

7. VICARIOUS EXPERIENCES consist of what has been observed in others performing a similar skill example : observing another player in your team dribbling a soccer ball if the model is of similar age / ability and is successful then this may lead to greater self-efficacy Self Confidence SELF-EFFICACY - BANDURA’S MODEL PERFORMANCE ACCOMPLISHMENTS • consist of past experiences • example : previously performed skill at dribbling a soccer ball • if this is successful • then this leads to greater self-efficacy • at this particular task • in the future

8. VERBAL PERSUASION encouragement can lead to greater self-efficacy if the person giving encouragement is of high status compared with the performer Self Confidence SELF-EFFICACY - BANDURA’S MODEL EMOTIONAL AROUSAL • if arousal is too high • state anxiety - A-state • this could lead to low self-efficacy • mental rehearsal / physical relaxation could • lead to greater confidence • and a calmer approach

9. WEINBERG’S MODEL of developing self-confidence Self Confidence SELF-CONFIDENCE

10. Self Confidence VEALEY’s MODEL OF SPORT CONFIDENCE VEALEY’S MODEL trait sport confidence • the usual level of self-confidence • example : a discus thrower is generally confident about making a throw competitive orientation • the perceived opportunity to achieve a sport performance • example : the discus thrower is motivated by a national championships to throw well state sport confidence • the level of self confidence related to a specific situation • example : the discus thrower feels confident because the wind is in the right direction

11. CONCENTRATION a state of mind in which attention is directed towards a specific aim or activity attentional focus control of attention towards a task CUE UTILISATION cues can be used by the sportaperson to direct attention to trigger appropriate arousal responses to enable attentional focus at a relevant moment sometimes, narrowing of attentional focus by an aroused player will cause lack of awareness of broader play issues USE OF COGNITIVE TECHNIQUES TO ASSIST CONCENTRATION imagery mental rehearsal relaxation can be used to direct the sportsperson’s mind towards a specific task these techniques can be thought to manage the stress of the situation to manage anxiety in a productive way Concentration CONCENTRATION

12. NIDEFFER’S ATTENTIONAL STYLES BROAD a player concentrates on the whole game all players’ positions and movements open skills NARROW the player concentrates on one aspect of the game the goalkeeper closed skills INTERNAL the player decides to concentrate on his own technique EXTERNAL the player focuses on the position of his opposite number Concentration CONCENTRATION AND ATTENTIONAL STYLES

13. RETICULAR ACTIVATING SYSTEM RAS is a system within the brain which causes arousal extroverts have lower levels of intrinsic arousal than introverts hence extroverts seek situations of high arousal introverts seek low arousal situations Emotional Control AROUSAL a state of mental and physical preparedness for action this is the level of inner drives which forces the sportsperson to strive to achieve it needs to be under control and at the right level depending on the task a faster heart rate faster breathing rate sweating ability to focus (concentrate) response to danger AROUSAL

14. WITH INCREASED AROUSAL the dominant habit / most usual behaviour will be reproduced a poorly-learned skill will give a performance full of mistakes a well-learned skill will give a skilled performance Emotional Control AROUSAL AND DRIVE THEORY DRIVE THEORY • the higher the arousal level • the higher the achievement / performance level • the more likely that a well-learned skill (a dominant response) will be produced

15. INVERTED U THEORY THE POSITION OF OPTIMUM AROUSAL DEPENDS ON type of activity / task complexity gross skills (weight lifting) require high arousal fine skills (snooker) require low arousal skill level of the performer the more skilful the performer the higher the optimum arousal could be personality of the performer the more extrovert the performer the higher the arousal likely for optimum performance whereas introverts would optimise performance at lower arousal levels Emotional Control INVERTED U THEORY • there is an optimum arousal level • if aroused more than this • performance will decline

16. BEST PERFORMANCE Sam’s performance has the highest level Emotional Control AROUSAL CURVES PSYCHING UP • Jon’s best performance takes place at the highest arousal level • he needs to psych himself up the most to achieve optimum performance CONTROLLED AROUSAL • Ted’s best performance takes place between a narrow range of arousal levels • therefore arousal needs to be carefully controlled

17. CATASTROPHE THEORY here performance increases as arousal increases but if arousal gets too high a complete loss of performance occurs Emotional Control CATASTROPHE THEORY • example : the golfer who tries too hard and completely misses the fairway from his drive at the 18th hole when in a winning position • example : the gymnast who completely messes up her previously well-executed routine in a national final • anxiety affects arousal

18. OPTIMUM AROUSAL can be identified can be controlled by successful performers depends on circumstances personalities whether tasks are simple or complex fine or gross strength or endurance information processing Emotional Control TASK DIFFERENCES

19. COMPLEX / SKILFULLY DIFFICULT TASKS fine, delicate and highly controlled or information processing tasks high arousal interferes with task sometimes very low arousal is required (calmness) close control required narrow band of arousal best Emotional Control TASK DIFFERENCES SIMPLE / GROSS TASKS • easy / large basic movements / strength or endurance tasks • bigger margin for error • broader optimal arousal zone • tolerate bigger arousal levels before performance falls

20. ANXIETY an emotional state similar to fear associated with physiological (somatic) arousal psychological (cognitive) arousal feelings of nervousness feelings of apprehension Emotional Control STATE ANXIETY - A STATE an emotional response to a particular situation characterised by feelings of nervousness and apprehension often temporary ANXIETY TRAIT ANXIETY - A TRAIT • an inbuilt (trait) part of the personality • a tendency to be fearful of unfamiliar situations • a tendency to perceive competitive situations as threatening • a tendency to respond to competitive situations with apprehension and tension

21. STRESS a response of the body to any demands made on it symptoms of stress physiological psychological behavioural Emotional Control STRESS AND STRESSORS

22. STRESSORS social disapproval of parents / peers rejection by peers / parents isolation from normal social interactions chemical / biochemical harm by ingestion of substances bacterial illness caused by micro-organisms physical injury / pain / exhaustion climatic extremes of weather hot weather for endurance activities rain and cold on bare skin psychological mismatch between perception of demands of task and ability to cope Emotional Control STRESSORS

23. homeostasis = the process of establishing body equilibrium in its functions well-being Emotional Control GENERAL ADAPTATION SYNDROME

24. EXTERNAL - THE SITUATION perception of the demands of the situation example : I’ve got to run a PB to win INTERNAL perception of the performer’s ability to cope example : I got a terribly slow start last time COMPETITIVE ORIENTATION perception of the importance of the situation example : there’s a gold medal hanging on this Emotional Control PSYCHOLOGICAL STRESS

25. EUSTRESS a type of stress with a positive effect the performer actively seeks the thrill of the danger and enjoys the excitement and feeling of satisfaction when it is over examples : bungy jumping free rock climbing extreme sport skiing ultra high diving ‘I like an unforgiving situation where if you make a mistake you suffer for it’ Emotional Control EUSTRESS

26. INHIBITION inhibition of performance PERFORMANCE OF SKILLS stress may act directly on the information processing of skill motor elements of skill are performed less well muscles tense muscular control is reduced CONCENTRATION concentration is difficult span of attention is narrowed STRESS awareness of being under stress itself acts as a stressor Emotional Control EFFECT OF STRESS ON PERFORMANCE

27. PHYSIOLOGICAL SYMPTOMS increased heart rate increased blood pressure increased sweating increased breathing rate decreased flow of blood to the skin increased oxygen uptake dry mouth PSYCHLOGICAL SYMPTOMS worry feeling overwhelmed inability to make decisions inability to concentrate inability to direct attention appropriately narrowing of attention feeling out of control BEHAVIOURAL SYMPTOMS rapid talking nail biting pacing scowling yawning trembling raised voice pitch frequent urination Emotional Control SYMPTOMS OF STRESS

28. Emotional Control THE MANAGEMENT OF STRESS

29. IMAGERY RELAXATION think of a place with associations of warmth and relaxation imagine the activity or technique practise in non-stressful situations use prior to competition PROGRESSIVE RELAXATION TRAINING (PRT) learn to tense then deeply relax separate muscle groups SELF-DIRECTED RELAXATION TRAINING focus on each of the major muscle groups in turn allow breathing to become slow and easy visualise the tension flowing out of a muscle group until completely relaxed eventually combine muscle groups and achieve total relaxation quickly Emotional Control RELAXATION TECHNIQUES

30. BIOFEEDBACK monitor skin temperature cold if stressed warm if unstressed galvanic skin response electrical conductivity of skin increases when moist tense muscle cause sweating electromygraphy electrodes taped to specific muscles can detect electrical activity hence tension in muscle Emotional Control COGNITIVE STRESS MANAGEMENT control of emotions and thought processes linked to attributions eliminate negative feelings develop self-confidence STRESS CONTROL TECHNIQUES

31. MENTAL REHEARSAL consciously imagine a performance rerun a past experience preview hope-for success helps concentration helps focus on strengths and weaknesses positive effect on skill learning but not as good as actual practice GOAL SETTING success is more likely because : learning is focused uncertainty is reduced confidence is increased practice is planned and structured evaluation and feedback are specific Emotional Control MENTAL PREPARATION FOR PERFORMANCE

32. SOCIAL FACILITATION the effect that the presence of spectators has on the way sportspeople play or perform can be positive facilitation example : crowd encourages a team playing well can be negative inhibition example : crowd jeers at a team not playing well DIFFERENT TYPES OF AUDIENCE passive others (social facilitation) audience coactors interactive others competitors spectators Social Facilitation SOCIAL FACILITATION

33. CO-ACTORS a passive form of audience involved in the same activity at the same time as the performer but not competing directly examples : officials / umpires / referees members of own team ball boys / helpers FACTORS AFFECTING PERFORMANCE size of audience proximity of audience intentions of the audience skill level of the task personality of the performer type of task Social Facilitation SOCIAL FACILITATION

34. FACILITATION high arousal leads to improved performance by highly skilled performer gross skills simple skills extrovert performer INHIBITION high arousal leads to reduced performance by novices fine skills complex skills introvert performer Social Facilitation FACILITATION AND INHIBITION

35. SOCIAL FACILITATION (ZAJONC) the mere presence of others creates arousal which then affects performance depending on which part of the learning curve performance is only improved if the dominant response is the one desired EVALUATION APPREHENSION (COTTRELL) audience is perceived as evaluating performance causing anxiety thus evaluation apprehension causes arousal coping strategies include stress management mental rehearsal selective attention (away from evaluators) lowering the importance of the situation training with an audience present Social Facilitation SOCIAL FACILITATION AND EVALUATION APPREHENSION

36. AROUSAL CAUSED BY AUDIENCE EVALUATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF A CORRECT DOMINANT RESPONSE audience evaluation causes arousal if a skill is poorly learnt (early in the learning curve) then arousal causes incorrect response because incorrect response is dominant Social Facilitation THE DOMINANT RESPONSE • if a skill is well-learnt (later in the learning curve) • then arousal causes correct response • because the correct response is dominant • look at inverted U theory for connection between arousal and performance

37. DISTRACTION is an aspect of concentration (or lack of concentration) attentional focus is very important for the effective sportsperson if this is disrupted then he / she is distracted from his / her task audience and evaluation apprehension can act as a distraction the sportsperson needs therefore to practise in distracting circumstances and practise switching attentional focus when faced with potentially distracting circumstances Social Facilitation THE DISTRACTION EFFECT

38. HOME / AWAY EFFECT ON PERFORMANCE more teams win at home than away a crowd may be judged as supportive or hostile high levels of anxiety caused by hostility may reduce performance the environment is familiar to home teams therefore home players are more comfortable this limits anxiety and enables a worry free performance Social Facilitation HOMEFIELD ADVANTAGE

39. ASSERTIVE PLAY no intent to harm legitimate force within the rules unusual effort unusual energy sometimes called channelled aggression HOSTILE AGGRESSION intent to harm goal is to harm arousal and anger involved INSTRUMENTAL AGGRESSION intent to harm goal to win used as a tactic ‘dirty play’ no anger illegal in all sports except boxing Aggression AGGRESSION IN SPORT

40. PHYSIOLOGICAL AROUSAL anger towards another person causing an increase in arousal highly motivated UNDERDEVELOPED MORAL REASONING players with low levels of moral reasoning more likely to be aggressive BRACKETED MORALITY double standard condoning aggressive behaviour may retard players’ moral development ‘aggression is wrong in life, but OK in sport’ SPECIFIC CAUSES high environmental temperature home or away embarrassment losing pain unfair officiating playing below capability large score difference low league standing later stage of play (near the end of a game) reputation of opposition (get your retaliation in first) Aggression CAUSES OF AGGRESSION

41. INSTINCT THEORY aggression is innate and instinctive caused by survival of the species sport releases built up aggression, catharsis Lorentz FRUSTRATION AGGRESSION THEORY aggression caused by frustration the person being blocked in the achievement of a goal this causes a drive towards the source of frustration Dollard SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY aggression is learned by observation of other’s behaviour then imitation of this aggressive behaviour this is then reinforced by social acceptance of the behaviour Bandura AGGRESSIVE CUE HYPOTHESIS frustration causes anger and arousal this creates a readiness for aggression which can be initiated by an incident during the performance (the cue) this is a learned response example : a player sees a colleaguefouled then decides to join in Berkowitz Aggression THEORIES OF AGGRESSION

42. Aggression SUPPORTERS can help prevent aggression by avoid showing aggression avoid advocating aggression SPECTATOR AGGRESSION SPECTATOR AGGRESSION caused by • player aggression • poor or biased officials • alcohol • racial or national abuse • adult male crowd

43. Aggression RESPONSIBILITY FOR AGGRESSIVE BEHAVIOUR

44. GOVERNING BODY code of conduct coaches players officials use of strong officials use of rules of games punishment (remove league points) sin bins reward non-aggressive acts (FIFA fair play award) use of language reduce media sensationalism coach education programme Aggression PREVENTION OF AGGRESSIVE BEHAVIOUR

45. Aggression COACHES / PLAYERS promote ethical behaviour promote sporting behaviour control aggressive behaviour stress management strategies / relaxation techniques self control strategies reduce levels of arousal maintain a healthy will to win without winning being everything set performance goals rather than outcome goals remove players from field if at risk of aggression enable channelling of aggression towards a performance goal use peer pressure ‘avoid letting the side down’ PREVENTION OF AGGRESSIVE BEHAVIOUR

46. ATTRIBUTION the process of giving reasons for behaviour and ascribing causes for events example : the player played badly today because the weather was poor WEINER’S MODEL has four attributions : ability effort task difficulty luck arranged in two dimensions : LOCUS OF CAUSALITY STABILITY with a possible third dimension : CONTROLLABILITY Attribution Theory ATTRIBUTION

47. LOCUS OF CAUSALITY is the performance outcome caused by INTERNALfactors under the control of the performer ability / effort EXTERNALfactors beyond the control of the performer task difficulty / luck ABILITY the extent of the performer’s capacity to cope with a sporting task EFFORT the amount of mental and physical effort theperformer gives to the task STABILITY is the performance outcome caused by STABLEfactors fixed factors which don’t change with time ability / task difficulty UNSTABLEfactors factors which can vary with time effort / luck TASK DIFFICULTY the extent of the problems posed by the task including the strength of the opposition LUCK factors attributable to chance such as the weather or the state of the pitch Attribution Theory WEINER’S MODEL

48. SUCCESS explained by internal attributions FAILURE explained by external attributions FUTURE EXPECTATIONS related to stability if we attribute success to stable factors or if we attribute failure to stable factors then we expect the same next time HIGH ACHIEVERS attribute success to internal factors and attribute failure to external factors LOW ACHIEVERS attribute success to external factors and attribute failure to internal factors FEELINGS ABOUT SPORT attributions affect pride satisfaction expectancy learned helplessness avoidance Attribution Theory ATTRIBUTION

49. Attribution Theory THE ATTRIBUTION PROCESS

50. LEARNED HELPLESSNESS a belief acquired over time that one has no control over events that failure is inevitable a feeling of hopelessness GLOBAL LH a person attributes failure to internal / stable factors applied to all sports ‘I am useless at all sports’ SPECIFIC LH a person attributes difficulties to internal / stable factors applied to one specific sport ‘I am good at soccer but hopeless at racquet games’ ATTRIBUTION RETRAINING low achievers need to learn to attribute success and failure to the same reasons as high achievers success to stable factors failure to unstable factors Attribution Theory LEARNED HELPLESSNESS (LH)