AQA Examinations A Level Sport and Physical Education A 6581 Module 4 part E

1. AQA ExaminationsA Level Sport and Physical EducationA 6581 Module 4 part E Physiological, Biomechanical and Psychological Factors which Optimise Performance

2. 26 - ATTITUDES IN SPORT 27 - FORMATION OF ATTITUDES 28 - COMPONENTS OF ATTITUDE - THE TRIADIC MODEL 29 - MEASUREMENT OF ATTITUDES BY OBSERVATION / USING PHYSIOLOGICAL TESTS QUESTIONNAIRES 30 - PREJUDICE AND SPORT STEREOTYPES NEGATIVE STEREOTYPES 31 - POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE ATTITUDES TO SPORT 32 - ATTITUDE CHANGE BY PERSUASION AND COGNITIVE DISSONANCE 33 - AGGRESSION IN SPORT ASSERTION / CHANNELLED AGGRESSION HOSTILE AGGRESSION / INSTRUMENTAL AGGRESSION 34 - CAUSES OF AGGRESSION PHYSIOLOGICAL AROUSAL UNDERDEVELOPED MORAL REASONING BRACKETED MORALITY / SPECIFIC CAUSES 35 - THEORIES OF AGGRESSION INSTINCT / FRUSTRATION AGGRESSION THEORIES SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY AGGRESSIVE CUE HYPOTHESIS 36 - SPECTATOR AGGRESSION 37 - RESPONSIBILITY FOR AGGRESSIVE BEHAVIOUR 38 - PREVENTION OF AGGRESSIVE BEHAVIOUR GOVERNING BODY 39 - PREVENTION OF AGGRESSIVE BEHAVIOUR COACHES / PLAYERS Index 3 - PERSONALITY 4 - THEORIES OF PERSONALITY - TRAIT TRAIT THEORIES - CATTELL - EYSENCK 5 - EYSENCK’S PERSONALITY TRAIT DIMENSIONS 6 - EVALUATION OF TRAIT THEORIES 7 - THEORIES OF PERSONALITY - SOCIAL LEARNING SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY - BANDURA VICARIOUS CONDITIONING 8 - THEORIES OF PERSONALITY - INTERACTIONIST - LEWIN 10 - MEASUREMENT OF PERSONALITY INTERVIEWS / QUESTIONNAIRES / OBSERVATION 11 - THE STRUCTURE OF CATTELL’S 16PF QUESTIONNAIRE 12 - PROFILE OF MOOD STATES (POMS) - MOODS 13 - SELF REPORT TESTS - PROBLEMS WITH THE TESTS 14 - MOTIVES AND MOTIVATORS - THEORIES 15 - INTRINSIC AND EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION 16 - EXTRINSIC REWARDS AND INTRINSIC SOURCES 17 - MAJOR MOTIVES FOR YOUTH / ADULT SPORT PARTICIPATION 18 - THE EFFECTIVENESS OF EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION DISADVANTAGES / EXPLANATIONS / APPLICATION 19 - DEVELOPING AND ENHANCING MOTIVATION PERSONAL CHARACTERISTICS / SITUATIONAL ASPECTS 20 - ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION NEED TO ACHIEVE (NACH) / NEED TO AVOID FAILURE (NAF) 21 - ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION - PERSONALITY COMPONENTS 22 - ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION - SITUATIONAL FACTORS 23 - MOTIVATION AND GOAL SETTING GOAL STRUCTURE - OUTCOME / TASK ORIENTATION 24 - MOTIVATION AND GOAL SETTING ENHANCING MOTIVATION 25 - ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION WHAT SHOULD THE COACH DO? INDEX

3. Personality PERSONALITY PERSONALITY • unique characteristics of an individual • knowledge about personality is important to ensure optimum sporting performance

4. TRAIT THEORIES general(covering all situations) underlying(inside of and part of the person) enduring (long lasting) predisposition(an inclination or motive formed earlier) CATTELL - EYSENCK’s hierarchical organisation of personality Personality THEORIES OF PERSONALITY- TRAIT

5. WHAT ARE THE CHARACTERISTICS OF PERSONS A - B - C - D? Personality EYSENCK’S PERSONALITY TRAIT DIMENSIONS A • stable extrovert • talkative, outgoing, easy going, carefree, showing leader qualities B • neurotic extrovert • restless, aggressive, excitable, changeable C • neurotic introvert • anxious, sober, rigid, pessimistic D • stable introvert • careful, thoughtful, controlled, reliable, even tempered

6. THE TRAIT APPROACH is seen as being too simple and therefore produces a limited view of what personality actually is fails to recognise that people are actively involved in constructing their own personalities and fails to recognise the effects of environmental situations as predicted by social learning and interactionist theories TRAITS do not predict behaviour are seen as rigid (they are supposed to be enduring and fixed with time) the notion that traits are enduring is seen as too long-term - people think that personality factors can change with time subject to situations which occur which might change these factors Personality EVALUATION OF TRAIT THEORIES TRAIT THEORIES • have a lack of sophistication • have problems of validity - how do you confirm that the traits exist?

7. SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY explains behaviour in terms of the reaction to specific situations we learn to deal with situations by observing others or by observing the results of our own behaviour on others and by modelling our own behaviour on what we have seen athletes learn behaviour by watching others BANDURA behaviour is determined by the situation social comparison behaving the same way as the peer group social approval or disapproval determines our responses behaviour is reinforced or penalised VICARIOUS CONDITIONING the learning of emotional responses through observational learning example : learning to become angry after a valid referee decision has gone against him / her by watching other players do the same Personality THEORIES OF PERSONALITY - SOCIAL LEARNING SOCIALISATION • sport has a socialising effect • participation in sport establishes norms and values of our society

8. INTERACTIONIST THEORIES traits determine behaviour but can be modified by situations traits situations behaviour LEWIN behaviour is a function of both the person (personality P) and the environment (E) B = f(P,E) Personality THEORIES OF PERSONALITY - INTERACTIONIST

9. Personality THEORIES OF PERSONALITY - INTERACTIONIST EXAMPLE OF INTERACTIONIST THEORY APPROACH • a young field event athlete shows promise, but worries about competing in important competitions and underperforms in these situations • her coach works with her on anxiety management strategies and in her next competition she achieves a personal best • the innate (trait) factors of the athlete’s personality cannot be changed by a coach • so the coach must therefore get her to view her anxiety (which could be a trait which emerges whenever undue stress is placed on her) in terms of the specific situation of the next competition • the anxiety could be channelled into positive images of her technical model • rejecting poor efforts as due to external factors (the the weather / wind) • and building on positive images of successful technical elements achieved • the athlete can then build success by this focusing on factors other than her own anxiety • this enables her to adjust her behaviour according to internal factors such as rhythm and fluency • this strategy should enable the athlete to remove the stress from the situation and hence reduce anxiety - even if she competes poorly

10. INTERVIEWS before or after the event not directly related to performance open ended and flexible transient feelings or attitudes may be expressed difficult to quantify accurately may be influenced by the interviewer Personality MEASUREMENT OF PERSONALITY QUESTIONNAIRES • before or after the event • not directly related to performance • rigidly and systematically set out • transient feelings or attitudes may be expressed • able to quantify accurately • would not be influenced by another • can be used to assess specific traits OBSERVATION • made during an actual event • directly related to performance • varies according to the competitive nature of the event • difficult to quantify accurately • may be influenced by the observer’s views and attitudes

11. Personality THE STRUCTURE OF CATTELL’S 16PF QUESTIONNAIRE

12. MOODS are an important aspect of personality which may influence sports performance tension depression anger vigour fatigue confusion unsuccessful sportspeople show high tension depression fatigue confusion low vigour Personality PROFILE OF MOOD STATES (POMS) • elite sportspeopleshowlow • tension • depression • confusion • high • vigour

13. PROBLEMS WITH THE TESTS lack of accuracy participant honesty the desire to create a favourable impression and therefore give answers which is what the questioner wants, not what the subject feels lack of objectivity neurotics emphasise certain traits ambiguous questions Personality SELF REPORT TESTS THE ANSWERS CAN BE INFLUENCED BY : • personality of the tester • time of day / month • previous experience of a test by a subject • a participant’s mood swings • the fact that personality is too complex to be viewed in response to yes or no answers

14. MOTIVATORS the reasons why sportspeople think and behave as they do THEORIES Motivation MOTIVES AND MOTIVATORS

15. EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION Motivation INTRINSIC AND EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION INTRINSIC MOTIVATION

16. EXTRINSIC REWARDS INTRINSIC SOURCES Motivation EXTRINSIC REWARDS AND INTRINSIC SOURCES

17. FOR YOUTH SPORT PARTICIPATION fun being with friends thrills excitement success developing fitness improving skills being good at it FOR ADULT SPORT PARTICIPATION health factors weight loss fitness self-challenge feeling better Motivation MAJOR MOTIVES

18. DISADVANTAGES adding extrinsic reward to a situation which already provided intrinsic motivation decreases the intrinsic motivation eventually replacing it so when rewards are no longer available interest in the situation (sports activity) reduces EXPLANATIONS the reward acts as a distraction to the sports person’s intrinsic desire to work at his / her own pace rewards may turn play into work relationships with the person giving rewards might change the nature of the activity changes people like to determine their own behaviour rewards may make them feel that someone else is in charge APPLICATION OF EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION to attract youngsters to an activity to revive flagging motivation to help a sportsperson over a bad period in training to provide information about levels of achievement and competence Motivation THE EFFECTIVENESS OF EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION

19. MOTIVATION IS A COMBINATION OF personal characteristics situational aspects MOTIVATION IS HIGHEST WHEN the performer is keen to participate the performer is keen to learn the performer is keen to perform the performer is keen to perform effectively when the motivational climate is right when the training programme is interesting and varied MOTIVATION IS REDUCED BY routine competitionbetween motives PEOPLE have multiple motives share motives have unique motivational profiles need variation in training and competition need variation in intensity and competitiveness need structured coaching and teaching environments MOTIVES CHANGE OVER TIME TEACHERS AND COACHES ARE IMPORTANT MOTIVATORS Motivation DEVELOPING AND ENHANCING MOTIVATION

20. ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION the drive to achieve success for its own sake related to competitiveness persistence striving for perfection influenced by personality factors need to achieve need to avoid failure situational factors probability of success incentive value of success NEED TO ACHIEVE (NACH) Tendency to approach success (Ts) this personality type likes a challenge likes feedback is not afraid of failure has high task persistence NEED TO AVOID FAILURE (NAF) Tendency to avoid failure (Taf) this personality type avoids challenges does not take risks often gives up does not want feedback (Atkinson and McClelland) Motivation ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION

21. A = someone with a high need to achieve will probably have a low need to avoid failure will choose difficult or demanding tasks which are more risky the hard route up a rock face Motivation ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION - PERSONALITY COMPONENTS B = • someone with a high need to avoid failure • will probably have a low need to achieve • will choose tasks which are less risky and more easily achieved • the easy route up the rock face

22. A = probability of success low (competing against the world champion) therefore strive very hard to win (incentive high) (will be highly chuffed if win) Motivation ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION - SITUATIONAL FACTORS B = • probability of success high • (competing in local club match) • therefore don’t need to try as hard to win • (incentive low) • (and expect to win easily) • (not so pleasing)

23. GOAL STRUCTURE easilyattained initially progressively more difficult training goals should be planned around overall goals short-term / medium-term / long-term goal setting as a means of managing anxiety / stress goal setting to increase motivation GOALS ARE EITHER OUTCOME ORIENTED towards the end result of the sporting activity example : to win a race TASK ORIENTED performance oriented judged against other performances example : to beat best time process oriented improvement in techniques Achievement Motivation MOTIVATION AND GOAL SETTING

24. TO ENHANCE MOTIVATION, GOALS SHOULD BE stated positively specific to the situation and the performer time phased challenging achievable - achievement would enhance self-efficacy at the sporting task measurable negotiated between sportsperson and coach progressive, from short-term to long-term performance / task oriented rather than outcome oriented written down reviewed regularly (with downward adjustment if necessary - in the case of injury) Achievement Motivation MOTIVATION AND GOAL SETTING

25. WHAT SHOULD THE COACH DO? IMPROVE NEED AND MOTIVE TO ACHIEVE (Nach) increase positive reinforcement hence increasing pride and satisfaction ensure that goals are achievable ensure that at least some situations guarantee success and subsequently gradually increase task difficulty in line with progress ensure that tasks are challenging ensure that the probability of success is good ensure that the incentive value of the success is high (is the race worth winning?) REDUCE TENDENCY AND MOTIVE TO AVOID FAILURE (NaF) reduce punishment hence lowering the chance of performer worrying about failure focus negative feedback on effort rather than ability this avoids the performer tending to believe that causes of failure are internal (due to lack of ability for example) and reduces the risk of learned helplessness (see next slide) avoid situations where defeat / failure is inevitable (such as performing against a much superior opponent) if this is not possible alter the criteria for success (you will have succeeded if you only lose by 2 goals) Motivation ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION

26. ATTITUDES a combination of beliefs and feelings about : objects people situations (called attitude objects) this predisposes us to behave in a certain way towards them learned or organised through experience evaluative they lead us to think and behave positively or negatively about an attitude object tend to be deep seated and enduring but can change or be changed Attitudes ATTITUDES IN SPORT

27. Attitudes FORMATION OF ATTITUDES

28. Attitudes COMPONENTS OF ATTITUDE - THE TRIADIC MODEL

29. BY OBSERVATION related toactual eventsas they are happening difficult to quantifyor measure open to interpretationby observer USING PHYSIOLOGICAL TESTS indicatorssuch as blood pressure skin conductivity brain activity (ECG) can be interpreted to indicate telling thetruth about an attitude object measurable independentof observer but takes along timeto set up requiring special apparatus QUESTIONNAIRES only as good as the questions asked measurable using Thurstone scale Likert scale Osgood’s Semantic Differential Scale Attitudes MEASUREMENT OF ATTITUDES

30. NEGATIVE STEREOTYPES women in strength, endurance and contact sports participation of the disabled in physical activity older age groups interest and ability at sport participation of particular ethnicgroups in specific sports or positions within teams examples : the black quarterback in American Football the black sprinter the white skier / swimmer Attitudes PREJUDICE AND SPORT STEREOTYPES PREJUDICE • a prejudgement of a person, group, or situation • usually based on inadequate information • or inaccurate or biased information • which reinforces stereotypes • example : • women are often excluded from male dominated sports clubs or events

31. POSITIVE ATTITUDES has a positive physicalself-concept satisfactionfrom participation in sport believe sportpromotes health success at sport willing to trynew activities encouragedby significant others participatesregularly opportunity to participate Attitudes NEGATIVE ATTITUDES had negative experiencesat sport havelifestylewhich makes regular sport difficult find sport frustrating lackencouragement unlikelyto participate in sport have anegative self concept find sportboring POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE ATTITUDES TO SPORT

32. PERSUASIVE COMMUNICATION theperson must pay attention understand accept retain the message being given thecoachmust be expert be trustworthy themessagemust be clear be unambiguous be balanced between emotion and logic be balanced between pros and cons COGNITIVE DISSONANCE thepersonmust be consistent between cognitive affective behavioural components the person must beconsistent between different elements cognitive dissonanceoccurs hence attitudes must change if two factual elements of attitude conflict example : the smoker who knows that smoking is bad for health Attitudes ATTITUDE CHANGE BY PERSUASION AND COGNITIVE DISSONANCE

33. ASSERTION sometimes called CHANNELLED AGGRESSION no intent to harm legitimate force within the rules unusual effort unusual energy HOSTILE AGGRESSION intent to harm goal is to harm arousal and anger involved INSTRUMENTAL AGGRESSION intent to harm goal to win used as a tactic ‘dirty play’ no anger illegal in all sports except boxing Aggression AGGRESSION IN SPORT

34. PHYSIOLOGICAL AROUSAL anger towards another person causing an increase in arousal highly motivated UNDERDEVELOPED MORAL REASONING players with low levels of moral reasoning more likely to be aggressive BRACKETED MORALITY double standard condoning aggressive behaviour may retard players’ moral development ‘aggression is wrong in life, but OK in sport’ SPECIFIC CAUSES high environmental temperature home or away embarrassment losing pain unfair officiating playing below capability large score difference low league standing later stage of play (near the end of a game) reputation of opposition (get your retaliation in first) Aggression CAUSES OF AGGRESSION

35. INSTINCT THEORY aggression is innate and instinctive caused by survival of the species sport releases built up aggression, catharsis Lorentz FRUSTRATION AGGRESSION THEORY aggression caused by frustration the person being blocked in the achievement of a goal this causes a drive towards the source of frustration Dollard SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY aggression is learned by observation of other’s behaviour then imitation of this aggressive behaviour this is then reinforced by social acceptance of the behaviour Bandura AGGRESSIVE CUE HYPOTHESIS frustration causes anger and arousal this creates a readiness for aggression which can be initiated by an incident during the performance (the cue) this is a learned response example : a player sees a colleaguefouled then decides to join in Berkowitz Aggression THEORIES OF AGGRESSION

36. Aggression SUPPORTERS can help prevent aggression by avoid showing aggression avoid advocating aggression SPECTATOR AGGRESSION SPECTATOR AGGRESSION caused by • player aggression • poor or biased officials • alcohol • racial or national abuse • adult male crowd

37. Aggression RESPONSIBILITY FOR AGGRESSIVE BEHAVIOUR

38. GOVERNING BODY code of conduct coaches players officials use of strong officials use of rules of games punishment (remove league points) sin bins reward non-aggressive acts (FIFA fair play award) use of language reduce media sensationalism coach education programme Aggression PREVENTION OF AGGRESSIVE BEHAVIOUR

39. Aggression COACHES / PLAYERS promote ethical behaviour stress that each individual has a responsibility for reducing aggression promote sporting behaviour use role models with none aggressive methods control aggressive behaviour stress management strategies / relaxation techniques self control strategies reduce levels of arousal maintain a healthy will to win without winning being everything set task / performance goals rather than outcome goals remove players from field if at risk of aggression enable channelling of aggression towards a performance goal use peer pressure ‘avoid letting the side down’ stress group responsibility for eliminating aggression PREVENTION OF AGGRESSIVE BEHAVIOUR