The USSR & Eastern Europe From Khrushchev to Gorbachev

1. The USSR & Eastern Europe From Khrushchev to Gorbachev

2. Economy and Politics Under Brezhnev How did Brezhnev contribute to the fall of USSR ?

3. Essential Questions • What were the key features of the USSR’s politics, society and economy under Brezhnev? • Was Brezhnev’s leadership to blame for Soviet stagnation from 1964 to 1982? • What challenges did Soviet foreign policy face in the Brezhnev era? • To what extent were the USSR’s aims achieved in Afghanistan? • Why did the USSR invade Afghanistan? • How serious were the socio-economic and political problems confronting the USSR by the time of Brezhnev’s death?

4. Conflicting Pressures • There were two conflicting pressures in the USSR since the death of Stalin: • Party conservatives and bureaucrats sought to preserve their privileged positions by opposing any changes that might threaten them or the position of the CPSU. • Reformers saw stagnation, so felt it necessary to change the system to make it work. • Because of the closed system of the USSR, most of this conflict happened behind closed doors. See seize of the power

5. Conflicting Pressures • It was not until Mikhail Gorbachev introduced Glasnost (openness) that this dispute became clear. • Underneath all of this also simmered the discontent of national minorities in the USSR.

6. Overview • Leonid Brezhnev came to power in 1964 following the overthrow of Nikita Khrushchev. • As First Secretary of the CPSU, he gradually emerged as the dominant force in Soviet politics. • In 1977, a new constitution further cemented Brezhnev’s political position and that of the CPSU.

7. Overview • There is some evidence that the standard of living for ordinary Soviet citizens improved during the Brezhnev era and by the time of his death, 86 per cent of Soviet citizens possessed a television or a refrigerator. • However, a static level of life expectancy and rising infant mortality suggest that there weredeep-seated social problems. • Rising oil exports failed to mask the growing economic problems facing the Soviet state.

8. Life in USSR under Alternative Facts • https://www.newyorker.com/culture/culture-desk/life-under-alternative-facts?mbid=social_facebook

9. Overview • Despite huge state subsidies, the kolkhozy were inefficient and unproductive and the USSR became increasingly reliant on food imports from the West.( grain from Canada, US , and Argentina) • Soviet industry was also beset by problems, such as widespread corruption and an obsession with quantitative targets to the exclusion of other economic goals.( Sovnarkhoz abandoned, 5 year plan reestablished ) • The work of GOSPLAN did little or nothing to ameliorate these problems.

10. Overview • One significant reaction to the socio-economic and political stagnation of the Brezhnev era was the emergence of a dissident movement. • Individuals like Andrei Sakharov became more vocal in their criticisms of the regime, especially in the aftermath of the Helsinki Accords. • By the time Brezhnev died in 1982, the USSR was in a state of crisis.

11. Overview • The economy was failing to bear the burden of the USSR’s imperial commitments and the Politburo was increasingly a gerontocracy and out of touch with the aspirations and needs of ordinary citizens.

12. Overview • Soviet foreign policy up to the late 1970s was characterized by poor relations with China. • Brezhnev was also determined to maintain the Soviet grip on eastern Europe, as shown by the Red Army’s invasion of Czechoslovakia in 1968 in response to Dubcek’s Prague Spring .

13. Overview • Crucially, the US Presidents Nixon and Ford worked towards détente with the Brezhnev regime, creating the SALT I treaty that placed limits on nuclear arsenals and the Helsinki Accords, which acted as a catalyst for the development of human rights movements in the Eastern Bloc.

14. Overview • With proxy wars continuing in the Third World, especially in Africa, and with US Pershing missiles and Soviet SS-20 missiles reigniting the arms race, the period of détente came to an end. • Crucial to this shift away from détente was the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979, driven by Soviet concerns about the growth of US and conservative Islamic influence in the region.

15. Overview • This military intervention was a disaster for the USSR, leading to the Red Army being embroiled in a bloody guerrilla war that cost the lives of over 15,000 Soviet soldiers and up to two million Afghans. • The Soviet military intervention was brought to an end by the 1988 Geneva Agreement, which, by withdrawing Soviet troops, paved the way for the collapse of President Najibullah’s PDPA client regime.

16. Overview • Inside the USSR there were serious challenges as well. • The make-up of the Politburo and other top governing bodies included increasingly elderly members, creating a gerontocracy. • This hindered the development of a dynamic system for dealing with political, social and economic issues that required urgent attention.

17. Overview • One very volatile issue was nationalism in some of the Soviet republics. • Mounting anti-Russian resentment flared up in the Baltic republics and spread to central Asia. The seemingly monolithic USSR was about to crack.

18. The Fall of Khrushchev • Khrushchev created many party enemies with his 20th Party Congress speech. • His attempts to reform agriculture in the late 1950s and early 60s increased opposition.

19. The Fall of Khrushchev • Positively, more funds were made available for agriculture, allowing for pensions for Kholkhoz workers and more and better equipment.

20. The Fall of Khrushchev • On the other hand, significant problems arose: • Bad advice led to planting Maize – a thirsty crop unsuited to the Virgin Lands. • Labour problems arose as workers did not want to move to the area. Appeals to patriotism were not enough. Few women moved to the area. • Though early crops were good, later crops failed miserably.

21. The Fall of Khrushchev • In foreign affairs, Khrushchev’s blustering brought little. • Kennedy’s forcing him to back down over the Cuban Missile Crisis was an embarrassment. • His failure in regard to Berlin was also noted.

22. The Fall of Khrushchev • Khrushchev was accused of fostering a personality cult not unlike that which he criticized Stalin for encouraging.

23. The Fall of Khrushchev • Within the politburo the opposition grew as other leaders came to resent Khruschchev’s colourful personal leadership and reckless style. • In the end it seems that Suslov and Brezhnev played key roles in his downfall.

24. The Fall of Khrushchev • On October 14, 1964, the world was shocked to hear that Khrushchev had resigned. • Overnight he went from leader of the world’s second most powerful nation to ordinary pensioner.

25. The Brezhnev Era • Brezhnev became titular head of the USSR. • In fact, it appears that there was a greater degree of collective leadership exercised than at any other time in Soviet History.

26. Brezhnev’s Kiss

27. Love of Fashion

29. The Brezhnev Era • Brezhnev’s time was marked by extreme conservatism. • DeStalinzation was dropped in 1965 and most criticism of Stalin ceased. • There was no question of further liberalization in the USSR. • New 5 year plans called for increases in consumer production, but the only progress seemed to happen on paper and not in the real world.

30. Checking things out

31. The Brezhnev Era • Under Brezhnev corruption was rife. • Government bureaucrats and managers of state enterprises carved out private empires at public expense. • Graft ( vzytka ) became deeply ingrained in the Soviet economy.

32. Corruption • The Brezhnev era also saw the rise of unofficial deal-makers called tolkachi, known for their ability to obtain raw materials through personal connections in GOSPLAN, which led to corruption and criminal networks. • An example of the extent of corruption was the establishment of fictitious factories that the state then supplied with raw materials. • The state-owned raw materials would then be sold to state factories or to other participants in the black market. • All this was possible since government officials could be bribed to grant licenses to establish the factories in the first place and have them supplied by the government itself. Between 1980 and 1985, at least two million Soviet citizens were arrested on charges of embezzling state property.

33. Introduction to Economy • Even by 1976, Soviet model already showing signs of crisis • Had been masked by things like Sputnik, first man in space, aid to allies, development of high-tech weaponry • Read another article on Fake News at the time ( images of Cosmonauts)

34. Planned Economy • 1928, Stalin first Five-Year Plan for ‘socialism in one country’ • Had not been the world-wide revolution Lenin had predicted • Gosplan • 1955, Khrushchev reformed with modernization • Didn’t really work, hard-liners skeptical • Overthrown in 1964

35. Soviet Economy From 1964-70 • Brezhnev first secretary, Alexei Kosygin prime minister • Time characterized by stagnation • Some attempts at industrial reform by Kosygin • Revived Khrushchev’s push for autonomy in factories • Took control from party, received opposition • Brezhnev obstructed him, argued for agricultural buildup over industry, actually led to increases • Kosygin’s plan worked for a while, but then returned to centralization

36. Agriculture • One of the major problems facing Soviet agriculture was that not enough food was being produced as the population grew and consumption of food rose. In the event of a poor harvest, as in 1972 and 1975, the USSR had to rely on grain imports from the USA, Argentina and Canada. • The grain imports dealt a damaging blow to the economic credibility of the socialist system, as well as being expensive for a system already under severe financial pressure.

37. Agricultural Subsidies • By 1973, the most important forms of agricultural production were the kolkhozy and sovkhozy, massive collective agricultural enterprises which had to be subsidized heavily by the state. By 1980, subsidies had increased to 20.3 per cent of the state budget from 19.5 per cent in 1972. • This placed a huge strain on other sectors of the economy that were starved of investment, such as consumer goods.

38. Economist’s Opinion • According to agricultural economist Karl-Eugen Wädekin, the problem was that massive subsidies during the Brezhnev era did not focus on the real problem of Soviet agriculture. • This had to do the structure of the farming system with its large bureaucracy and awkward organization, as well as not allowing demand to decide on distribution, rather than the state.

39. Industrialization • Soviet industry also stagnated during the Brezhnev era. Brezhnev showed no real interest in economic reform. • Factory managers were discouraged from risk-taking by the requirements issued by the State Planning • Controlled by Committee, or GOSPLAN. • Factory managers continued to produce no more than the quota assigned with little regard for costs or quality of production. • Factories, mines and transport industries operated with antiquated machinery. By the 1970s, the industrial sector was slowing down, as Source E indicates.

40. Brezhnev’s Policies 1970-76 • Early 70s, Soviets seemed strong, militarily and industrially • Brezhnev maintained kolkhozy collectives • 9th Five-Year Plan 1971-75, expanded production of light consumer goods • 1973, oil crisis, boom in raw materials, opportunity to reform Soviet economy, did not

41. 10th Five-Year Plan (1976-80) • Gold, oil and gas producer • 1976, called for further consolidation of kolkhozy, but many operating at a loss due to costs • Brezhnev raised wages, kept workers happy • Still problems, 1979 have to buy from N. America • Brezhnev just increased state investment, not a solution • Showed real signs of industrial slowdown, less production then planned • 1979, decree on industry, still decline • Little fresh thinking, did create ‘associations’ • Still problems with workers • Brezhnev continued movement toward consumer goods, but slowed again in 1976

42. GUM under Brezhnev

44. Cult ?

45. Artek Artek is an international children center (a former Young Pioneer camp) on the Black Sea in the town of Hurzuf located on the Crimean Peninsula, near Ayu-Dag. It was established on 16 June 1925. Artek was considered to be a privilege for Soviet children during its existence, as well as for children from other communist countries.

46. Social Developments and Developed Socialism • Many aspects of life improved under Brezhnev • Social wages improved • Trade unions opened opportunities • Social mobility slowed • Other social problems • Despite problems in 1966, Soviets thought they were in a second phase called “developed socialism”

47. Some Successes • Sovnarkhozes were abolished in 1966 as they caused competition between regions within the USSR. • There was a return to a Stalinist model of industrial development that used targets established by Five Year Plans and co- ordinated by GOSPLAN. The tenth Five Year Plan from 1976 to 1980 delivered some economic growth and GDP increased by 2.7 per cent annually in the late 1970s. • An area of exceptional growth was in the sphere of military, aeronautical and space technology. There, Soviet industry managed to keep up with the West during the Brezhnev era as 220 million roubles were invested in Akademgorodok, which housed many of the USSR’s most eminent nuclear scientists.

48. Economic Reforms 1982-85 • Brezhnev died in 1982, second-longest tenure( Putin now has held the office for almost 18 years) • Admitted in 1981 there were economic difficulties • Had considered becoming closer to China to improve security • Sec. of Ideology Yuri Andropov had been posturing • Supported by Minister of Defence, rather than Konstantin Chernenko who had support of PM Tikhanov • Military coup?

49. Andropov and Reform • Had been Hungarian ambassador in 1956, seen attempts at reform • Was KGB, had accurate info on what was working • Did not want to end Soviet system, just modify it • Campaigns against absenteeism, alcoholism • Tried to make his camp younger, avoid Brezhnev’s ‘drift’ • Protégé -Gorbachev • More power to managers, rewards for production, similar to Kosygin • 1983, contradicted ‘developed socialism’ • Died in Feb. 1984, not enough time

50. Chernenko and ‘Drift’ • Andropov hoped for Gorbachev to replace him • Those opposed to reforms, Brezhnevites, decided on Konstantin Chernenko, 72, old • Probably due to his weaknesses • ‘Look before you leap’ • Limited changes • Increased defense budget • Against corruption • Chernenko ill in 1984 • Govt. run by defense minister Dimitri Ustinov and Gorbachev • Gorbachev taking ideological control • Became general-secretary in 1985