Module 2 Research Strategies How Psychologists Ask and Answer Questions -I-

1. Module 2 Research Strategies How Psychologists Ask and Answer Questions -I-

2. Our intuition and common sense • Hindsight Bias • we tend to believe, after learning an outcome, that we would have foreseen it • the “I-knew-it-all-along”phenomenon • Overconfidence • we tend to think that we know more than we do • Perceiving order in random events • Our eagerness to make sense of the world We overestimate our own intuition

3. Thinking Critically With Psychological Science • To believe with certainty, we must begin by doubting • Thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions • examines assumptions • identifies hidden values • evaluates evidence • assesses conclusions

4. The Scientific Method • The Process of Research • Observing a phenomenon • Formulating an idea • Testing an idea • Generalizing or refining the idea

5. The Scientific Method • Formulating an idea • Initial phase of research, in which observations, beliefs, information, and general knowledge lead to a new idea or a different way of thinking about some phenomenon • Testing an idea • Organizing countless observations into a theory • Formulating testable predictions: hypotheses • Testing the hypotheses • Using operational definitions of concepts • Generalizing or refining the idea

6. The Scientific Method • Theory an explanation that integrates principles and organizes and predicts behavior or events. • Theory explains the underlying reason of the observed phenomenon • Produce hypotheses • Hypothesis a testable prediction, often prompted by a theory, to enable us to accept, reject or revise the theory.

7. The Scientific Method Theory explains the underlying reason WHY?

8. Testing hypotheses using operational definitions • Operational Definition • a statement of procedures (operations) used to define research variables • Also enables other researchers to replicate • example- • intelligence may be operationally defined as the score obtained from the intelligence test measures • Psychological well-being can be operationally defined as high level of life satisfaction and low depression. • Academic success can be operationally defined as GPA.

9. The Scientific Method • Replication • repeating the essence of a research study to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances • usually with different participants in different situations • the research findings can be generalizable to other samples/situations.

10. Methods of psychology • Description (to describe) • Correlation (to predict) • Experimentation (to understand)

11. Methods of psychology • To describe human and animal behavior and mental processes, psychologists conduct: • Case studies • Surveys • Observations (naturalistic/lab)

12. Description Case Study • observation technique in which on individual (or few incidences) are studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principals • Studies of brain damaged individuals • Piaget • Suggest hypotheses for further studies • Problems?? • May be unrepresentative

13. Description Survey • Looks at many cases with less depth. • Ask people to report thier behaviors or opinions. • Market surveys • Koç University student satisfaction survey • Problems??

14. Who do we survey? • Usually question a representative, random sample of people seleced from a population. • Population • all the cases in a group, from which samples may be drawn for a study • Random Sample • a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion

15. If there is a serious fuel shortage this winter, do you think there should be a law requiring people to lower the heat in their homes, or do you oppose such a law? Should be 39.4 % Oppose 60.6 % If there is a serious fuel shortage this winter, do you think there should be a law requiring people to lower the heat in their homes, or do you oppose such a law because it would be too difficult to enforce? Should be 26.0 % Oppose 74.0 % How do we ask questions?

16. Description Naturalistic Observation • observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations (or in more controlled environments) without trying to manipulate and control the situation • Dating behaviors of Koç University students? • Problems?

17. Methods of psychology 2. To predict human and animal behavior and mental processes, psychologists conduct - Correlational studies: the examination of the quantitative relationships between two or more variables • how does one behavior relate to the occurrence of another behavior? • if we know one behavior’s pattern can we then, in turn, predict the pattern of occurrence of another behavior?

18. Variable Defined • Any characteristic or attribute that varies in amount and kind • Gender • Success • Weight, Height • Self-esteem • Reaction time in a learning experiment • Intelligence • Achievement motivation

19. Correlation • Correlation Coefficient • a statistical measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus how well either factor predicts the other Indicates direction of relationship (positive or negative) Correlation coefficient r = +.37 Indicates strength of relationship (0.00 to 1.00)

21. Correlation does not imply causation Three Possible Cause-Effect Relationships could cause (1) Low self-esteem Depression or (2) Depression could cause Low self-esteem or Low self-esteem (3) Distressing events or biological predisposition could cause and Depression