Duty and Desire 2

1. Duty and Desire 2 Lisa Does Her Duty

2. Moral “contentment” and happiness • Stoics: doing one’s duty is true happiness • Kant: this is moral contentment • and is not the same as happiness • The Simpsons: Marge feels moral contentment in telling the truth, • but she is not happy because her legitimate desires are frustrated.

3. Being worthy of happiness • When she gets her unemployment check she is not happy • Because she feels she doesn’t deserve it. • Moral ideal: • You should do your duty for the sake of duty, • and as a result your desires are fulfilled.

4. Necessary but not sufficient • For the moral person, fulfillment of duty is a necessary condition for happiness • It produces a kind of inner satisfaction • But it is not a sufficient condition • In addition, one’s (legitimate) desires should also be fulfilled • (What about the non-moral person, the egotist? Can Lionel be truly happy?)

5. Second major issue: How do we know what is our duty? • 1) Experience of dutifulness • Duty v. desire • 2) How know something is our duty? • 3) The problem of happiness • Duty plus desire (as consequence) • 4) What is the source of the experience of duty? • Is it socialization? Innate feeling? Etc.

6. Hume’s theory of moral feeling • Reason is cold, dispassionate: does not move us to act • Feelings, desires, “passions” do move us to act • Morality does move us to act • Therefore morality must be a certain kind of feeling • “Disinterested feeling”

7. 1st problem with theory of moral feeling: determinism • Feelings that are caused by external conditions imply determinism • But determinism undermines morality • Morality = responsibility • How can we be responsible if our actions are caused by outside forces?

8. Two kinds of feelings • 1) externally caused feelings. Kant calls this “pathological feeling” • caused by outside forces • E.g., someone has a friendly social nature and so likes to help others • 2) internally caused feeling based on our shared humanity • Marge feels bad about not telling the whole truth to her customers because she feels connected to them as fellow human beings

9. Moral choice (free will) • 1) act on the basis of desires, feelings, interests of separate individual (ego) • Ordinary desires • 2) act on the basis of one’s shared humanity • And by extension, with one’s shared membership with all intelligent and sentient beings • Higher level, moral desire—the desire to be a good person

10. 2nd problem with theory of morality as feeling: irrationalism • Recall Bart’s feeling that killing a bird is wrong. But why? • Bart (indirectly) kills many birds in defending his charges • Lisa’s objection: “I don't get it, Bart. You got all upset when you killed one bird, but now you've killed tens of thousands, and it doesn't bother you at all.”

11. Feeling is not enough • Feelings imply principles, rules or laws • Look at the inner meaning of the feeling, and formulate it as a principle • Inherent in our actions are ideas, general thoughts, beliefs, or “maxims” • E.g., “it’s wrong to kill innocent animals” • Bart does not reflect on the principle that is implicit in his feeling • “I don’t get it Bart …”

12. Categorical Imperative • “Act only on that maxim through which you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law.”

13. Hypothetical imperatives: technical • Imperative: something you must do; it’s not optional • Technical imperatives: • If you want to catch a fish, you must have a fishing rod. • If you want the end, you must employ certain means to the end • But the end itself is not necessary (it’s hypothetical)

14. Hypothetical imperatives: Prudential • Everybody necessarily desires happiness, but the means are hypothetical (uncertain) • Prudential imperatives • Homer wants to go fishing. Why? Because it will make him happy. • But is it necessary for him to fish in order to be happy? (necessity) • Should everyone who wants to be happy go fishing? (universality)

15. Ends and means • In technical imperatives, the end or goal is optional, but the means are necessary • In prudential imperatives the goal is universal and necessary, but the means are optional or “hypothetical” • But what makes a person happy is different for different people • It’s not necessary for Homer to go fishing to be happy. He could go to a bar and have a beer. He could have a nice meal with his family

16. Categorical imperatives • Homer abandons his fishing expedition • because he doesn’t want to hurt Marge • The categorical imperative overrides the imperative of happiness, with its prudential means • How do we know that a certain action is categorically (absolutely) imperative? • Negatively: when you cannot will the maxim of the action as a universal law

17. How to know what is right? • 1) Begin with feelings, desires, interests that give rise to a possible action • 2) Reflect on the maxim or principle implicit in your action. • 3) Can you will this maxim consistently (“as a universal law for you), or does it contradict itself or other maxims? • I.e., are you contradicting yourself!

18. Why not steal from the collection plate? • 1) Desire for money leads to a plan: steal from the collection plate • 2) Maxim: People should steal from others when they can get away with it. • 3) But can Jessica Lovejoy will this maxim as a universal law—governing how others treat her? • E.g., “It’s ok for others to steal from me.”

19. The Golden Rule • Kant reformulates “Do unto others as you would have them do unto you.” • See other persons as other selves • Why? • Because the rule of your action will (tend to) become the law of your world • Do you want to live in such a world?

20. Microcosm and Macrocosm • Red Jacket Realty is a microcosm of the world in which all adopt the maxim of me-first • 1) War within the company • 2) War with customers • The maxim of egotism (me first) creates a Hobbsean world of warring egotists • Hobbes: human beings are separate individuals, acting solely for themselves as individuals • Non-egotists are expelled (Marge) • “You’re one of kind, Marge.”

21. Contradiction of stealing • 1) Desire to have property (for oneself). • 2) Means of realizing this goal: take or destroy property (of others). • 3) But 2) contradicts 1): destroy property to obtain property • The law of theft, when universalized, stated as a universal law, makes property impossible • And contradicts the maxim that you have adopted: it’s good to have property

22. Why tell the truth? • Lionel’s maxim: there’s the truth, and there’s “the truth” • Maxim: Tell others what is necessary to persuade them to buy; • if the truth as you understand it would not succeed, “bend it” • Can this be a universal law of human communication? • Can you even will it for yourself?

23. Motto of salesmanship • Motto or maxim of Red Jacket Realty: • “the right house for the right person” • Is the maxim is universalizable? • Does Lionel will the maxim as a universal law? • Lionel Hutz wants the right house for himself • But he denies it for others when he sells them the wrong house for them • He has two contradictory maxims • His affirmation of the company maxim = moral hypocrisy

24. Lionel’s real motto • Lionel does not act on a feeling of shared humanity: • other people as other selves • He acts for his own self, • while separating himself from others •  a world of warring individuals

25. Acting on the basis of shared humanity • Marge feels the primacy of her shared humanity with her friends and neighbors • And faces the moral choice: • not self or others, • but selfishness versus humanity (including herself) • Marge too is a human being, • and so she should respect herself as well as others • Morality is not just for others (altruism)

26. Giving the laws that govern our world • In every action, you are a law-giver • Reflect on the law that is implicit in your action • Act as if the laws of the world depend on you—because they do!

27. Lisa goes vegetarian • 1) Experience of little lambs in petting zoo. • Maxim of action? • One should care for innocent animals • 2) Eating lamb for supper. • Maxim of action? • It’s ok to kill innocent animals

28. Independent thinking • Lisa is thinking for herself • Her school is not based on such thinking • The film, presented by the Meat Council, justifies meat eating • = Corporate self-interest • "The Meat Council Presents: `Meat and You: Partners in Freedom'. • Number 3F03 in the `Resistance is Useless' series."

29. Scientific rationale? • Jimmy: I have a crazy friend who says it’s wrong to eat meat. Is he crazy? • Troy: Nooo, just ignorant. You see your crazy friend never heard of "The Food Chain". • [Flash to a picture of "Food Chain", with all animals and arrows pointing to a silhouette of a human.] • “Just ask this scientician.”

31. Survival of the fittest(Dog-eat-dog world) • He'll tell you that, in nature, one creature invariably eats another creature to survive. • Don't kid yourself Jimmy. If a cow ever got the chance, he'd eat you and everyone you care about! • [Image of a cow quietly chewing cud, but with a mean look on its face.]

32. Scientific point of view? • 1) All actions are governed by outside causes (natural laws) • 2) Humans act to realize their feelings, desires, and (rationally examined) interests on the basis of natural laws • = egotism, self-interest, >economic life • Every one (animals as well as humans) uses others to advance themselves • =universal egotism • determinism

33. Hobbesean world:Projection of human egotism • =a picture of the animal world based on the projection of human egotism • Hobbes: human beings are self-interested • > war of all against all, and life is “solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short.” • Need the State to impose limits on natural freedom—through threats of punishment • Can the maxim of egotism (Me first!) be willed as a universal law?

34. Morality and science • If science is right, morality is an illusion • Deterministic Science: all our actions are the results of outside causes • Morality implies responsibility for one’s own actions, and so free will to choose between • 1) the drives of ordinary life arising from external causes (scientific perspective) • 2) principles of action by which we choose to live (moral perspective)

36. Bart learns the hard way • Bart and Lisa are watching cartoons on TV • Lisa: I never realized before, but some Itchy & Scratchy cartoons send the message that violence against animals is funny. • Bart: They what? Cartoons don't have messages, Lisa. [Moves toward door.] They're just a bunch of hilarious stuff you know, like people getting hurt and stuff, stuff like that. [Bart gets slammed behind the door by Homer, and we laugh]

37. Lisa sees the principle • Bart sees cartoons showing animals getting hurt, and laughs hilariously • Lisa objects: that’s a bad message. • Bart: cartoons are funny because they show animals and people getting hurt. • Bart then gets slammed by Homer in a cartoonish way

39. Bart’s double standard • The Simpsons is a cartoon • It shows Bart getting hurt, and we laugh, but uncomfortably • Bart doesn’t laugh at himself getting hurt! • What is the message of this cartoon? • 1) our maxim of laughing at others getting hurt: It’s ok to laugh at people getting hurt • 2) our maxim of others laughing at us: It’s not ok to laugh at people getting hurt

40. Lisa’s stand • Lisa takes action and breaks up Homer’s backyard barbecue party with a pig roast • Lisa: I'm never ever apologizing because I was standing up for a just cause and you were wrong wrong wrong! • She causes the pig to fly out of the yard and spoils Homer’s barbecue

41. Lisa suffers and gives up • She is isolated, lonely, suffering for her principled action • Example of duty! • But if it’s useless, if no one listens, why persist? • She gives up and eats a “hot dog”—but it’s Apu’s tofu hot dog. • Linda and Paul McCartney are on Apu’s roof garden

42. Another kind of vegetarianism • Lisa: When will all those fools learn that you can be perfectly healthy simply eating vegetables, fruits, grains and cheese. • Apu: Oh, cheese! • Lisa: You don't eat cheese, Apu? • Apu: No I don't eat any food that comes from an animal.

43. Tolerance • Lisa: Ohh, then you must think I'm a monster! • Apu: Yes indeed I do think that. But, I learned long ago Lisa to tolerate others rather than forcing my beliefs on them. You know you can influence people without badgering them always. It's like Paul's song, "Live and Let Live". • Paul: Actually, it was "Live and Let Die".

44. 2nd Fomulation of Categorical Imperative • “Act in such a way that you always treat humanity whether in your own person or in the person of any other, never simply as a means, but always at the same time as an end.” • = other people too act for their own ends or goals, and must be respected for this

45. Morality is for oneself • Morality is about one’s inner intentions, not external actions •  Be consistent with one’s own principles of action • How do we know the inner intentions of others? • Are we ever sure we know even our own real motives? • Hence morality is not: impose one’s own principles on others

46. Variety of beliefs • People have different beliefs (thousands, millions of them?) • Morality: consistency, constancy in one’s beliefs—taking control of one’s beliefs • But this can lead to different moral standards for different people • Lisa’s vegetarianism v. Apu’s (deeper one?)

47. Kant’s “formalism” • One formal principle: will your maxim as a universal law • Different possible contents of moral rules • Some people say it’s ok to kill animals. To be consistent, they kill the lamb themselves • Some people say its not ok, and are consistent with that • Doesn’t this produce moral relativism, irrationalism?

48. Herodotus on cultural relativism • Darius to the Greeks (who burn their dead): what would it take for you to eat your dead? • Answer: not all the money in the world. • With the Greeks present he asks the Callatians (who eat their dead): what would it take for you to burn your dead? • Answer: not all the money in the world.

49. Deeper universality • There is one truly universal moral rule (regarding content): • Respect other human beings as “ends in themselves” • Not treat other human beings as “mere means” to one’s own ends • Both the Greeks and the Callatians respect their dead • Contradicts egotism: (Lionel’s approach)

50. Persuasion not force • Homer’s beliefs: • 1) It’s natural for humans to eat meat • 2) It’s sociable, generous, to provide meat • Is Homer being consistent within his lights? • Homer: Lisa, get a hold of yourself. This is lamb, not a lamb. • Lisa: What's the difference between this lamb and the one that kissed me? • Bart: This one spent two hours in the broiler.