Descartes

1. Descartes a collection of revision notes Libertarian-Left Collective – Notes on Philosophy

2. Table of Contents • Introduction • Background…………………………………………………………..1 • Meditation 1…………………………………………………………2 • Meditation 2…………………………………………………………5 • Mediation 3………………………………………………………….8

3. Meditation 4………………………………………………………13 • Meditation 6………………………………………………………16

4. Introduction • Descartes’ Meditations form the first part of the second semester’s module ‘Descartes, Thought and Reality’. This allows the emphasis to be placed on how he impacted western philosophy, particularly in the areas of thought and reality, demonstrated through a further study of Thomas Nargel, Edmond Husserl, Merleu-Ponte, Sigmund Freud and Friedrich Nietzchein the second part of the module. • The exam at the end of the year will consists of two one-hour questions, one to be answered on Descartes’ philosophy and another on one the input those he influenced on related topics.

5. 1 Background • Descartes (1596 – 1650) appears at the bridge between two eras, and thus acts in part as such. Being brought up in a scholiast, Catholic background he was initially a product of this mentality. • With the emergence of the scientific revolution, however, Descartes along with other pioneers in science and thought engaged with the school of skeptics. Truth was to based and discovered by a scientific method of proof and progression through doubt, and the true nature of human existence thus re-examined. Stages and directionality are thus essential tools in harnessing doubt.

6. 2 Meditation 1 Theme: The first Meditation is geared towards identifying why and how we should doubt, the beginning stage to that of the bound being in Plato’s Cave. This process is presented as a journey of sorts, as it coheres with the a key Cartesian notion referred to as the ‘Tree of Knowledge’ – where all that is known bases itself on the following: metaphysics, physics and the other sciences. Meditations 1

7. 3 Features: Descartes emphasises the importance of truth and methodological thinking over illusion and deception, often reverting to metaphors such as light and darkness to highlight this. The mind is given priority over the body in importance to reflect such a way of thinking, which is essential to his method of advancing in stages. Meditation 1 is divided into four. Meditations 1

8. 4 a. Retreat from the Senses Madness and Dreaming b. Our senses are not flawless and may deceive us. To find truth we must doubt them and begin anew. Former dismissed. Realises that dreaming is not an issue, as 1 + 1 still = 2 and that it can only consist of elements of reality. Evil Genius Hypothesis d. c. The example of the Painters If God is perfect, and we are being deceived, there must be a deceiver who sets out to do so. The former must be followed to free one’s self from the latter. As what we see in our dreams is a mosaic of what we see in the waking world. Thus, there is a waking world. Meditations 1

9. 5 Meditation 2 Themes: Having highlighted the senses’ role in deceiving the mind, Descartes moves on to engaging the pressing possibility that he is indeed merely a brain in a jar, that neither he or anyone else exists. The aim in this module is to verify human existence as a real phenomenon. A study is also conducted on the nature of the human mind itself, in order to further understand how he can exist as an ‘I’ at all. Meditations 1 2

10. 6 Features: One will notice a regular appeal to the notions of innate, fundamental awareness. This allows to Descartes to establish a connection with the realm of the divine, which holds within it undoubtable truth. The steps he takes to reach a conclusion are in the opposite order from Scholastics. The wax example plays an important role in this stage of the meditations, for it reflects on the nature of the human race’s comprehension of things and the complications involved. Meditations 1 2

11. 7 The concept of ‘I think therefore I am’ will be used as a foundation for all of Descartes’ arguments henceforth. Descartes confirms his existence in the following manner: God must have given him the ability to think such thoughts in the first place, he must therefore exist as a ‘receiver’ Proof That I Exist 2. Mind exists because thought does, and it is the mind, not the body that can think. Here therefore exists as a consciously thinking being. What I Am 3. As only mind, using reason and intellect and judgment, can allocate identity beyond form, it must have an innate idea of what a body is. Existence as a ‘Thinking Thing’ Meditations 1 2

12. 8 Meditation 3 Themes: This chapter in Descartes’ search for truth concentrates on reinforcing a key element of his theories – the existence of a non-deceiving god. Such a concept will allow him to explore the notions of an existing past, present and future as well as other things, beyond thecogito. In this part of the Meditations, Descartes examines the nature of ideas, so as to firstly see how they relate to our notion of ‘god’ and secondly to reveal the manner with which humans are duly affected by it. Meditations 1 3 2

13. 9 Features: In order to tackle the difficulties concerning the concept of an idea, Descartes makes use of a wide range of philosophical terminology. This allows him to efficiently piece together a two-part argument justifying the existence of God. Metaphors and drama continue to play an important role in the text, extending from the medium of light to that of water – in this case whirlpools – and generating emotive imagery to facilitate the comprehension of his points. Meditations 1 3 2

14. 10 To be able to understand Descartes’ two proofs arguing that god exists, a brief explanation of each term is necessary. • Ideas: images and impressions of things that exist in the mind, which may or may not be representations of the truth. • Innate (ideas): ideas that are placed or exist naturally within the mind Light of Nature: the innate ability to conceive knowledge, the apex of reason and understanding. Teachings of Nature: aspects of nature that inspire claims to knowledge, conducted through the application of empiricism. Meditations 1 3 2

15. 11 Formal reality (of an idea): the nature of an idea’s existence, irrespective of its origin and what it represents. All human ideas have same degree of formality. Objective reality (of an idea): that which the idea resembles or reflects. There are different degrees of objectivity between ideas, as they focus on different things. Efficient cause: the source, whatever it may be, that brings about a specific event (e.g. the wax melted because it was hot). Total cause: the only reason behind the occurrence of the event (e.g. the wax melted because the candle was lit) Meditations 1 3 2

16. 12 Descartes, having employed the terminology required, forms two cosmological proofs to support his claim that god exists. The term ‘cosmological’ is used, as he aims to structure his arguments by demonstrating the relationship between cause and effect. 2 1 Nothing else can give me this idea I have an idea of what God is Only such a being can give me this idea of itself Nothing else can preserve me as a thinking thing If I have a total cause, then I have an object reality: the being is real. Elimination = only God can do both of the above Meditations 1 3 2

17. 13 Meditation 4 Themes: Descartes’ encounters a problem towards the end of Meditation 3. If, as he claims, God is not out to deceive him, why then is he subject to deception? The subject matter of Mediation 4 is thus ‘Concerning the True and the False’. The nature of the mind is thus called into question once again, as Descartes identifies the roles of judgment, will and understanding to be components of the mind and how it interprets things. Meditations 1 3 4 2

18. 14 Features: The constant breaking down of all concepts to find truth, one of Descartes’ defining characteristics, is put to practice every time he encounters a problem or expands into a new area of knowledge. This example of in-depth analysis is present in his re-definition of what the mind is and how it relates to truth. Descartes proceeds to solving the problem of why he errs by, having result of explaining the nature and role of all the mind’s components, suggesting how each of these can interact to avoid mistakes. Meditations 1 3 4 2

19. 15 Some terms to consider in order to understand what the ‘Two Causes of Error’ are: Intellect: that which allows ideas to be conceived and later judged. Will: that which drives us to judge true or false Error = when will extends further then understanding, it is applied to that which is not yet understood. This leads to mistaken judgment(will > understanding). Solution = when will is used within parameters of understanding, as a method, to make accurate judgments (will = understanding). Meditations 1 3 4 2

20. 16 Meditation 6 Themes: Having proven that he and God exist, and that there is a method to finding truth, what remains to be established is whether things beyond the above are real. The last Meditation is thus dedicated to ‘…the Existence of Material Things, and the Distinction between Mind and Body’. Emphasis will be given to the concept of imagination and the senses, and their role in the perception and conception of the external world, concluding with an examination of Cartesian Dualism. Meditations 1 3 6 5 4 2

21. 16 Features: The last Meditation features an inquest into the ‘material world’ and whether or not it exists. Unlike previous chapters, he can already identify that he has the capacity to recognise that he has an idea of the material world, and simply has to prove whether or not it is real. It is important that an external world can be proved to exist, as the concept of beingcan be proven to be a constant, independent of the individual. Meditations 1 3 6 5 4 2

22. 16 Descartes first starts by identifying the faculties of imagination and the senses, passive and impure, as they function externally to the pure rationality – intellect – and will. Intellect in turn is weighed against imagination, as the two step from separate faculties of the mind. Problem = when does the imaginations’ ability to conceive fail to meet the intellects’ capacity to perceive? Solution = we can know that a) whatever the imagination conjures, it must be based on a reality and b) the fact that this concept is involuntary must mean that it exists Meditations 1 3 6 5 4 2

23. This slide show was prepared by the Libertarian-Left Collective, an anarchist student group, as part of its direct action university program aimed at autonomising student communities and thusly increasing their influence within the university environment. Revision notes are part of our student-for-student projects. Feel free to use and distribute this slideshow as you see fit – we hope it helps! Any suggestions / questions, find us as at: E-mail: libertarianlfront@gmail.com Website: http://libertarian-left-collective.doomby.com Facebook page: https://www.facebook.com/pages/Libertarian-Left-Collective-Student-Association/464145450294560?ref=tn_tnmn