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What is development?

What is development?. Changes in humans over time i.e. over the lifespan Changes are enduring – not fickle Changes are systematic. Stages of Development. Prenatal – conception to birth Infancy – birth to 1 year Toddlerhood – 1 to 2 years Early childhood – 2 to 6years

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What is development?

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  1. What is development? • Changes in humans over time i.e. over the lifespan • Changes are enduring – not fickle • Changes are systematic

  2. Stages of Development • Prenatal – conception to birth • Infancy – birth to 1 year • Toddlerhood – 1 to 2 years • Early childhood – 2 to 6years • Middle childhood – 6 to 11 years • Adolescence – 11 to 20 years • Adulthood (various stages)

  3. Pre-embryonic/Germinal • “period of the zygote” • 2 weeks long • Fertilization • Implantation

  4. Embryonic (2 – 8 weeks) • formation of body’s organ systems • very vulnerable time for developing organs • Fetus (8 – 38 weeks) • Fetus grows a lot in size, gains weight • 22-26 weeks: age of viability • cerebral cortex: convolutions appear

  5. Theories of Development • Freud: childhood is important in shaping our personalities as adults • Psychosexual theory • Conflicts between basic drives and social expectations.

  6. Trust vs. Mistrust – 0-1yr Autonomy vs. shame/doubt – 1-3yr Initiative vs.guilt – 3-6yr Industry vs. Inferiority – 6-11yr Identity vs. inferiority - adolescence Intimacy vs. isolation – young adulthood Generativity vs. stagnation – middle adulthood Integrity vs. despair – old age Psychosocial Theory – Stages (Erikson)

  7. Cognitive Development (Piaget) • Scheme: "an organized pattern of thought or action that is used to cope with or explain some aspect of experience" • E.g. infant reflexes are early behavioural schemes

  8. Organization: putting schemes together • Adaptation: adjusting to environment Assimilation: Accommodation: uses current scheme adjusts old scheme

  9. Sensorimotor Stage (0-2 yrs) • Reflexes • Trial & error exploration • Deferred imitation • Object permanence

  10. Pre-operational stage (2-7 yrs) • Can use symbols • E.g. Pretend/make-believe play • Cognitive ‘limitations’ – illogical forms of reasoning • Egocentrism • Centration – Conservation tasks

  11. Concrete Operational (7-11 yrs) • Think more logically about objects and experiences • Can use ‘mental operations’ • E.g. reversibility (mentally reversing)

  12. Formal Operational (11 and older) • Can think about abstract concepts • Can form hypotheses (beyond what is real or concrete) • Personal Fable • Imaginary audience

  13. Emotional Development: Attachment • Bond between caregiver and child • Attachment (negative emotions) distinct from warmth (positive emotions) • Cognitive component: form internal working models (expectations, ideas about relationships)

  14. Theories • Psychoanalytic: cupboard theory • Learning theory: mother becomes associated with pleasurable events, like feeding • Ethological: infants have greater chance of survival if they stay close to parents

  15. Bowlby – Attachment Theory • Attachment relationship has adaptive value • Infants have cute features • Adults are biologically prepared to respond well to infants • Adults use infant-directed speech • However, there is some learning involved

  16. Assessing Attachment: Ainsworth’s Strange Situation • involved separations from the parent • Unfamiliar place, unfamiliar experimenter • Found three patterns of attachment

  17. Secure (65%) Insecure-Avoidant (25%) Insecure-Anxious (10%) Disorganized Infant Attachment Categories

  18. Moral Development

  19. Parental Influences • If the parent models appropriate behaviour, child will also acquire those responses • Positive character attributions may facilitate internalization • E.g. “That was nice to do; what a considerate boy you are!”

  20. Approaches to Discipline (Hoffman) • Love Withdrawal: removal of love and attention, approval of the childwhen he or she misbehaves • Leads to anxiety; child more concerned with avoiding punishment • Power assertion: Use of threats of physical power, such as spanking, restraining the child • Causes the child to fear the power of the parent

  21. Induction (Reasoning) • Explaining to the child why a behaviour is wrong; • Child understands effects of their misbehaviour on other people

  22. Child influences • Temperament • Sex • Age

  23. Kohlberg’s Cognitive Developmental Theory • Stage 1: Basic Gender Identity • by age 3, can label as boy or girl; don’t realize can’t switch genders • Stage 2: Gender Stability • gender is a trait that is stable over time • Stage 3: Gender Consistency • gender is also stable over situations

  24. Overview of Gender Stereotyping & Gendered Behaviour • 0-2.5 yrs: toddlers prefer same-sex playmates; like gender-typed toys • 3-6: rigid gender stereotypes; segregation • 7-11: gender segregation; stereotyping slightly less rigid • 12+ : gender intensification; pressure to conform to gender roles

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