Unit 12 The Future of Medicine

1. Unit 12 The Future of Medicine

2. Skills focus Reading • understanding how ideas in a text are linked • Writing • deciding whether to use direct quotation or paraphrase • incorporating quotations • writing research reports • writing effective introductions/ • conclusions Vocabulary focus • verbs used to introduce ideas from other sources (X contends/ • suggests/asserts that …) • linking words/phrases conveying contrast • (whereas), result (consequently), reasons (due to), etc. • words for quantities (a significant minority)

4. A Study the words in box a. 12.1 Vocabulary 1 What part of speech is each word? 2 Which nouns can be changed to verbs? Which verbs can be changed to nouns? Check the stress and pronunciation. 3 What do the underlined prefixes mean?

5. A Study the words in box a. 12.1 Vocabulary the DNA in each human cell is arranged into 46 chromosomes (23 from each parent) which carry the genes of that individual n (C) corre'lation n (C/U) to be connected in a way that is not caused by chance 'customize v (I/T) v (T) make or change according to requirements where an organ or body part does not function in a normal way n (C/U) v (T) to convert information into a code

6. A Study the words in box a. 12.1 Vocabulary a molecular code passed to a living thing from its parents and located within every cell to control its behaviour n (C) n (U) the study of genes a process where genetic factors are transmitted from one generation to the next n (U) molecule n (C) adj relating to molecules a change or alteration in form or qualities – particularly used for genetic changes n (C/U) mu'tate v (I)

7. A Study the words in box a. 12.1 Vocabulary branch of engineering/science that deals with things smaller than 100 nanometers (= .00000001 mm) n (U) an outbreak of disease which is geographically widespread and has a severe effect on the population n (C) disease-producing agent (especially a virus or bacterium or other microorganism) n (C) legal document giving an inventor the sole rights to benefit from an invention n (C) patent (T) branch of genetics that studies the genetically determined variations in response to drugs n (U)

8. A Study the words in box a. 12.1 Vocabulary determining the order of constituents in something; used in reference to molecular genetics in particular sequence v (T) n (U) a feeling that something is wrong or embarrassing in some way, generally imposed by society or family n (U) stigmatize v (T) n (U) vary v (I/T) deviation from a standard model

9. A Study the words in box a. 12.1 Vocabulary

10. B Study the words in box b. Match each word in the lefthand column with a word in the right-hand column. 12.1 Vocabulary

11. 12.1 Vocabulary C Read the headings of each text on the opposite page. 1 What theme links the four texts together? 2 Read text A and look at the highlighted words. Connect each word to the noun it refers to. Example: those refers to previously mentioned nouns (organs and tissues)

12. 12.1 Vocabulary C Read the headings of each text on the opposite page.

13. 12.1 Vocabulary C Read the headings of each text on the opposite page. organs and tissues organs A new method of organ replacement to provide a patient with a new trachea the trachea transplant the recipient's body recognized the transplanted trachea as her own and did not reject it

14. D Study the verbs in box c. They can be used to introduce quotations or paraphrases/summaries. 12.1 Vocabulary 1 Check the meanings of any words you don’t know. 2 Which verbs have similar meanings? 3 Which verbs are not followed by that? 4 When can you use each verb? Example: accept = the writer (reluctantly) thinks this idea from someone else is true

15. D Study the verbs in box c. They can be used to introduce quotations or paraphrases/summaries. 12.1 Vocabulary 1 Check the meanings of any words you don’t know. 2 Which verbs have similar meanings? accept, agree, concede, argue, assert, claim, contend, insist, consider, note, observe, point out, state, disagree, dispute, illustrate, indicate, show 3 Which verbs are not followed by that? 4 When can you use each verb? Example: accept = the writer (reluctantly) thinks this idea from someone else is true

16. D Study the verbs in box c. They can be used to introduce quotations or paraphrases/summaries. 12.1 Vocabulary that (reluctantly) thinks this idea from someone else is true that thinks this idea from someone else is true is giving an opinion that others may not agree with that is giving an opinion that others may not agree with that is referring to someone else’s ideas + noun that is giving an opinion that others may not agree with that reluctantly thinks this idea from someone else is true is giving his/her opinion that

17. D Study the verbs in box c. They can be used to introduce quotations or paraphrases/summaries. 12.1 Vocabulary is giving an opinion that others may not agree with that is giving a description how; + noun that; with + noun thinks an idea is wrong + noun thinks an idea is wrong that is giving his/her opinion strongly is explaining, possibly with an example that that is explaining, possibly with an example is giving an opinion that others may not agree with that

18. D Study the verbs in box c. They can be used to introduce quotations or paraphrases/summaries. 12.1 Vocabulary is giving his/her opinion that is giving his/her opinion that that is giving his/her opinion that is giving research findings that is explaining, possibly with an example that is giving his/her opinion is giving his/her opinion tentatively; or is giving his/her recommendation that; + gerund

19. E Read text B on the opposite page. Look at the highlighted sentences. 12.1 Vocabulary 1 What is the purpose of each sentence? Example: A child born in Sweden… = statement of fact 2 In an assignment, should you refer to the highlighted sentences by quoting directly or paraphrasing? 3 Choose an appropriate introductory verb and write out each sentence as a direct quotation or a paraphrase. Add the source reference where necessary.

20. 12.1 Vocabulary F 1 Read each of the texts again and decide which principles of medical ethics are relevant to the future developments discussed in each. 2 Discuss and write a short summary of your conclusions. Text 1 = beneficence, non-malfeasance (to those who donate their organs for money), justice Text 2 = justice, beneficence Text 3 = beneficence, non-malfeasance Text 4 = justice, beneficence

21. Vocabulary bank Introductory verbs Choosing the right introductory verb is important. Your choice of introductory verb shows what kind of statement the writer is making. Example: Findless (2007, p.6) argues that mortality is affected by factors other than national wealth. Your choice of introductory verb also shows what you think of another writer’s ideas. This is an important part of academic work. Example: Braines and Kahn (2008, p.13) claim that recent research into the human genome gives us a vital weapon to fight future pandemics.

22. Vocabulary bank Introductory verbs

23. E Read text B on the opposite page. Look at the highlighted sentences. 12.1 Vocabulary Findless (2006) points out that a child born in Swaziland is 30 times less likely to reach the age of five than one born in Sweden. making a statement of fact paraphrase The evidence clearly illustrates that factors other than national wealth affect mortality (Findless , 2006). giving a strong opinion paraphrase

24. E Read text B on the opposite page. Look at the highlighted sentences. 12.1 Vocabulary Findless (2006) cites evidence from Cooper et al. which observes that ‘if the experience of Cuba could be extended to other poor and middle-income countries human health would be transformed’. quoting from another author who is making a Strong statement quote the other author directly By researching, developing and marketing advanced drugs worldwide, Cuba is demonstrating what can be achieved by one low-income country(Findless , 2006). explaining, possibly with an example paraphrase

25. A Discuss the following questions. 12.2 Reading 1 Why do you think research into the human genome is particularly important for the future of medicine? Because the activity in every cell in every living organism is governed by the DNA in its nucleus, research into the human genome will provide knowledge about the most fundamental aspects of life. 2 How do you think such research can help doctors deliver better care to their patients? There are many possible answers to this, e.g., the development of new drugs and treatments, possible creation of ‘spare part’ organs from the patient’s own tissue, being able to predict disease and hopefully to prevent it, to begin to understand how to roll back the ageing process.

26. 12.2 Reading B Survey the text on the opposite page.What will the text be about? Write three questions to which you would like answers. C Read the text. Does it answer your questions?

27. D Number the sentences on the right 1–8 to show the order in which they happened 12.2 Reading 7 5 8 2 6 4 3

28. E For each paragraph: 12.2 Reading 1 Identify the topic sentence. 2 Think of a suitable title. The beginning of the Human Genome Project The Human Genome Project began in 1990 … At that time, the project was also seen as extremely ambitious in technical terms. Technical aspects of the project In June 2000, a rough draft of the human genome sequence was produced. The initial product and related issues By April 2003, a finished version of the human genome sequence was available. Final results of the project and related knowledge Many benefits have already emerged from this research and there will be many more over the next decade. Current and future benefits and related issues

29. F Look at the underlined words in the text. What do they refer back to? 12.2 Reading 1990 major investments were made in computer technology for data processing specialized electronic components a rough draft of the human genome sequence its use for any purpose was subject to licence agreements their paper estimated 25,000 human genes individuals

30. G Study the highlighted words and phrases. 12.2 Reading 1 What do they have in common? 2 What linking words or phrases can you use to show: • contrast? • concession? • reason? • result? 3 Write the sentences with the highlighted items again, using other linking words or phrases with similar meanings.

31. Vocabulary bank Linking ideas in a text Linking words, which join ideas within a sentence or between sentences, convey different meanings.

32. G Study the highlighted words and phrases. 12.2 Reading 1 What do they have in common? They are all linking words or phrases. 2 What linking words or phrases can you use to show: • contrast? • concession? • reason? • result?

33. G Study the highlighted words and phrases. 12.2 Reading … but … … whereas … … while … However, … In/By contrast, … On the other hand, … However, … At the same time … Nevertheless, … Despite/In spite of (this/noun), … Yet … … although … … despite/in spite of the fact that ...

34. G Study the highlighted words and phrases. 12.2 Reading … because … … since … … as … … due to/owing to the fact that … Because of (this/noun), … Owing to (this/noun), … Due to (this/noun), … So, … As a result, … Consequently, … Therefore, … … , so … … so that … … with the result that …

35. 12.2 Reading H Read the text on the right. A student has written about some of the technical issues associated with the Human Genome Project, but the quotations and paraphrases have not been correctly done. Can you spot the mistakes and correct them?

36. Skills bank Deciding when to quote and when to paraphrase When referring to sources, you will need to decide whether to quote directly or to paraphrase/summarize. • Quote when the writer’s words are special or show a particularly clever use of language. This is often the case with strongly stated definitions or opinions. • Paraphrase/summarize descriptions and factual information.

37. Skills bank Incorporating quotations • Use an introductory verb. • Don’t forget the quotation marks. • Make the quotes fit the grammar of the sentence. • Show any missing words with ‘...’. • Copy the original words exactly. • Add emphasis with italics and write [emphasis added]. • Add words which are not in the original but are necessary to fully understand the quotation out of context. Put the extra word(s) in brackets. Do not quote more than one sentence within the body of a paragraph. If you want to quote two or three sentences, put a colon and write the quote as indented text, so that it clearly stands out from the body of your essay. However, think very carefully before you include a long quote. It is usually better to paraphrase in this case.

38. There is often no need to include the authors names in the in-text citation, a number is used to identify the reference in the bibliography. However, when using a numbered in-text citation, it is sometimes necessary to refer to the authors of a work by name. In this case ‘et al.’ is usually used where there is more than one author. 12.2 Reading As Truong VD, Sandeep KP, Cartwright GD (2007) explains that without more computers it would not be possible to achieve the stated objectives by 2005. Consequently, a large investment was made in technology which was the beginning of the science of bioinformatics. Yet, according to Truong VD, Sandeep KP, Cartwright GD (2007), they say that with less than half the project time remaining, just over 6% of the genome had been mapped. Fortunately, because they developed electronic components to analyze DNA without human intervention. Consequently, there was an enormous increase in the speed with which the genome could be mapped. 1 The words which are the same as the original need quotation marks. 2 The page number should be given in brackets at the end of the quote.

39. 12.2 Reading 1 Note that much of the information here has been paraphrased – which is the better option for information. 2 If you want to emphasize a part of a quote, use italics and then put ‘[italics added]’ after the quote. As Truong VD, Sandeep KP, Cartwright GD (2007) explains that without more computers it would not be possible to achieve the stated objectives by 2005. Consequently, a large investment was made in technology which was the beginning of the science of bioinformatics. Yet, according to Truong VD, Sandeep KP, Cartwright GD (2007), they say that with less than half the project time remaining, just over 6% of the genome had been mapped. Fortunately, because they developed electronic components to analyze DNA without human intervention. Consequently, there was an enormous increase in the speed with which the genome could be mapped. 1 When continuing to refer to a source you can use further or also or other similar words; says is not a good choice of introductory verb since it is too informal. You do not need according to as well as a verb of saying. 2 When referring to the same place in the same source, use ibid. instead of the full source reference. If it is the same publication (but not the same place in the text), use op. cit.

40. 12.2 Reading Quotation marks must be added to the words which are the same as the source. As Truong VD, Sandeep KP, Cartwright GD (2007) explains that without more computers it would not be possible to achieve the stated objectives by 2005. Consequently, a large investment was made in technology which was the beginning of the science of bioinformatics. Yet, according to Truong VD, Sandeep KP, Cartwright GD (2007), they say that with less than half the project time remaining, just over 6% of the genome had been mapped. Fortunately, because they developed electronic components to analyze DNA without human intervention. Consequently, there was an enormous increase in the speed with which the genome could be mapped. 1 ‘They developed’ has been replaced with the noun form which is more suitable. 2 Quotation marks must be added to the words which are the same as the source.

41. 12.2 Reading As Truong1 et al. (2007) explain, without more computers ‘it would not be possible to achieve the stated objectives by 2005’ (p. 6). By 2005 major investments were made in data processing technology which marked the beginning of bioinformatics, a new scientific discipline ‘combining computing and biology’ [italics added]. Yet, Truong et al. (ibid), further point out that with less than half the project time remaining, ‘just over 6% of the genome had been mapped’. Fortunately, the development of electronic components to analyze DNA without human intervention meant ‘there was an enormous increase in the speed with which the genome could be mapped’.

42. A Study the words in box a. 1 Check the pronunciation and grammar.2 What are their meanings in a research report? 12.3 Extending skills

43. A Study the words in box a. v (noun is pronounced: 'conduct) do (some research, a survey, an experiment) 12.3 Extending skills information; can be numerical (quantitative) or verbal (qualitative) pl n the title of the section in a research report which discusses the findings. Sometimes the discussion is included in the Findings/Resultssection n (U/C)

44. A Study the words in box a. 12.3 Extending skills the title of the section in a research report which details what has been found out; each finding should be linked with a researchquestion. The title Results can also be used for this section pl n n (C) possible effect or result of the findings noun: when someone is asked questions in a survey; verb: to ask someone questions in a survey n (C), v

45. A Study the words in box a. 12.3 Extending skills n (C) the person being questioned n (C) the person asking the questions a problem with the research methods; an aspect which the research could not address n (C) title of the section in a research report which explains how the research was carried out. In the plural it refers to the research methods used n (C)

46. A Study the words in box a. a written set of questions n (C) 12.3 Extending skills in no fixed order; with no organizing principle adj suggestion for action as a result of the findings of the research n (C) n (C) what the researcher wants to find out n (C) a person taking part in a questionnaire survey same as Findings. Used more or less interchangeably pl n

47. B Read the two Method paragraphs on the right. 1 Copy them into your notebook. Put the verbs in brackets in the correct form.2 Identify the original research questions and the research methods used. 12.3 Extending skills

48. B Read the two Method paragraphs on the right. Method (A) A written questionnaire (design) was designed to measure how ethnic minorities perceived the safety and likely societal benefits from clinical trials compared with their nonethnic counterparts. Six hundred questionnaires (send) were sent to a random sample of patients selected from each of the two subject groups. Two hundred and fifty (return) were returned. In addition, twenty-five patients from ethnic minorities (interview) were interviewed in GP surgeries. Over 65% of the sample (be) were women. 12.3 Extending skills Research method Research questions 1 What are ethnic minorities’ perceptions of the safety and societal benefits of clinical trials?2 How do ethnic minorities compare to non-ethnic minorities in their perceptions of clinical trials? written questionnaire interview

49. B Read the two Method paragraphs on the right. Method (B) In order to find out what the main issues surrounding the level of participation by ethnic minorities in clinical trials are, a literature search (undertake) was undertaken using the PubMed database and the Google search engine. The search terms which (use) were used were ethnic minority, participate and clinical trial. 12.3 Extending skills Research questions 1 What are the main issues in relation to participation by ethnic minorities in clinicaltrials? Research method literature search

50. C What are the sections of a research report?What order should they go in? 12.3 Extending skills