Rhetoric (Pathos)

1. Rhetoric(Pathos)

2. Cognitive Development • Piagetian Cognitive Development Theory • The essence of huaman cognitive development is his adaptation to the environment in search of equilibration or balance by means of organization, assimilaiton and accomodation.

3. Schemes and Organization. • Schemes: mental images or symbols of what we have experienced in our daily life • We adapt to the environment with the help of mental structures called schemes, which are the mental images or symbols of what we have experienced in our daily life. • They help us understand the world and allow us to perform mental activities like thinking, reasoning, and memorizing. • Without them, we can not learn, speak, or teach just as construction workers can not build without bricks and housewives can not cook witout fire. • Schemes develop from simple to complex ones. They are combined and coordinated with other schemes to become more effective.

4. For example, sucking, crying, and grasping are the most preliminary schemes that we possess when we were born. We can either suck or grasp an object, but we can not do the grasping and sucking simutaneously. When we grow, however, we can coodinate these two schemes, that is, we can grasp the object, put it into the mouth, and suck it. • Therefore, organization from this perspective is “the combining, arranging, recombining, and rearranging of behaviros and thoughts into coherent systems.”[1] • [1] Woolfolk, Anita. Educatioinal Psychology. 北京：中国轻工业出版社，2007：28

5. Assimilation and Accommodation. • We are able to develop our cognitive skills because we have the schemes to help us “assimilate external events and convert them into mental events or thoughts.” • In other words, we use our existing schemes to understand what is new to us and make it part of the scheme in question. • Solso, MacLin, and MacLin (2005) offer an excellent analogy. When we eat an apply, we use our physical structures like the digesting system to take it in and change it into “human biological material.”

6. Once the apple is converted into human biological materal, it is assimilated. However, when we eat a bigger apple, we have to adjust our physical structures or relevant organs so as to make the digestion easier. • When we do this, we are accommodating our physcial structures to the new problem caused by a new object. It is accommodation.

7. We accommodate our schemes to new things we encounter. • In other words, we change our schemes to understand or explain what is new to us in order to make it part of the scheme in question. • (“In simialr fashion we accommodate our mental structrues to new and unusual aspects of the mental environment.”) [1] • [1] Solso, Robert, MacLin, M. Kimberly, and MacLin, Otto H. Cognitive Psychology. Beijing: Peking University Press (7th ed.), 2005:382-383

8. Four Stages of Cognitive Development. • Piaget assumes four stages of human cognitive development: the sensorimotor period; the preoperational period; the concrete-operational period, and the formal-operational period. (See Figure 3.1) • In these stages, a child transforms schemes from simple to integrated and coordinated ones. “Across development, these schemes become progressively integrated and coordinated in an orderly fashion so that eventually they produce the adult mind.”[1] • However, a child has to go through each stage to get to the next. • [1] Solso, Robert, MacLin, M. Kimberly, and MacLin, Otto H. Cognitive Psychology. Beijing: Peking University Press (7th ed.), 2005:382-383

9. Dhgdhghgdh

10. Stage 1: The sensorimotor period (birth to 2 years). • In this period, children develop schemes dependent on actions from the innate and involuntary responses to voluntary controls to goal-directed activities. • In the earliest stage, they perform activities like sucking, looking, or grasping individually to sense the world. • In the voluntary control stage, they are able to coordinate these actions, performing them successively. • In the goal-directed activities, they perform an activity to achieve a specific goal rather than focusing on the behavior itself. At this period of time, children also develop object permancence. They understand that an object exists even though it disappears from their sight. However, the action schemes can not help them think.[1][1] Solso, Robert, MacLin, M. Kimberly, and MacLin, Otto H. Cognitive Psychology. Beijing: Peking University Press (7th ed.), 2005:382-383 • Woolfolk, Anita. Educatioinal Psychology. 北京：中国轻工业出版社，2007：30 • 陈琦，刘儒德(Chen Qi and Liu Rude). 当代教育心理学. 北京：北京师范大学出版社，2007：31-32

11. Stage 2: The Preoperational Period (2-7 years). • In this period, children develop symbolic schemes to start and improve their ability in thinking. They begin to form mental symbols like words, images, and signs to facilitate thought. • Their thinking, however, is “in one direction only, or using one-way logic. It is very difficult for the child to ‘think backwards,’ or imagine how to reverse the steps in a task.”

12. Another characteristic of the children in this period is their egocentic, seeing “the world and the experiences of others from their own viewpoint, …assum[ing] that everyone else shares their feelings, reactions, and perspectives.” • There is a third characteristic: conservation. Children in this period have not developed the concept of conservation, that is, no matter how the shape of an object changes, the quantity remains the same.

13. A fouth characteristic is collective monologue. • A child speaks without any interaction with others either when he is alone or when he is in a group.[1] “This ability to work with symbols, such as using the word “horse” or a picture of a horse or even pretending to ride a horse to represent a real horse that is not actually present, is called semiotic function.”[2] According to Woolfolk, “between the age of 2 and 4, most children enlarge their vocabulary from about 200 to 2,000 words.”[3] • [1] Solso, Robert, MacLin, M. Kimberly, and MacLin, Otto H. Cognitive Psychology. Beijing: Peking University Press (7th ed.), 2005:382-383-384 • Woolfolk, Anita. Educatioinal Psychology. 北京：中国轻工业出版社，2007：30-32 • 陈琦，刘儒德(Chen Qi and Liu Rude). 当代教育心理学. 北京：北京师范大学出版社，2007：32-33 • [2] Woolfolk, Anita. Educatioinal Psychology. 北京：中国轻工业出版社，2007：31 • [3] Woolfolk, Anita. Educatioinal Psychology. 北京：中国轻工业出版社，2007：31

14. Stage 3: The Concrete-Operational Period (7- 11 years). • During this period, children experience three major integration and coordination in their schemes: conservation, classification, and seriation. • Unlike pre-opeartional ones, children at this stage begin to understand that changes in shapes and size of an object do not influence its basic properties like weight, amount, or quantity if nothing more is added or taken away. This is the skill or scheme of conservation, as was mentioned in Stage 2. • They also develop their skill of classification. They are able to classify objects according to their fundamental characteristic or characteristics.

15. A third skill they develop in this period is seriation. They are able to place objects in sequential order according to size, length or weight. With all these skills, children acquire a logical thinking system. They can coordinate and conserve various physical dimensions like height, width, volume, weight, and distance. However, they base their thinking only on concrete objects in actual situations. They are unable to conduct abstract thinking within hypothetical or abstract formalized situations.[1][1] Solso, Robert, MacLin, M. Kimberly, and MacLin, Otto H. Cognitive Psychology. Beijing: Peking University Press (7th ed.), 2005:382-383 • Woolfolk, Anita. Educatioinal Psychology. 北京：中国轻工业出版社，2007：30 • 陈琦，刘儒德 . (Chen Qi and Liu Rude) 当代教育心理学. 北京：北京师范大学出版社，2007：31-32

16. Stage 4: The Formal Operational Stage (11-adult). • Formal operations refer to abilities to operate within “a mental system for controlling sets of variables” and “[work] through a set of possibilities.”[1] • At this stage, children begin to conduct abstract thinking, able to integrate and coordinate schemes in their mental system allowing them to think without concrete objects or actual situations. • They base their thinking on propositions, able to figure out the relations among them and understand symbols, similies and metaphors. • [1] Woolfolk, Anita. Educatioinal Psychology. 北京：中国轻工业出版社，2007：35

17. In addition, they can make generalizations according to fundamental characteristics of the objects, people, events, or ideas in question. • “At this level of formal operations, the focus of thinking can shift from what is to what might be. Situations do not have to be experienced to be imagined.”[2] With these skills, they are able to solve problems by means of deductive or inductive reasoning. [2] Woolfolk, Anita. Educatioinal Psychology. 北京：中国轻工业出版社，2007：35

18. According to Woolfolk, “[t]he ability to think hypothecially, consider alternative, identify all possible combinations, and analyze one’s own thinking has some interesting consequences for adolescents. • Because they can think about worlds that do not exist, they often become interested in science fiction. • Because they can reason from general principles to specific actions, they often are critical of people whose actions seem to contradict their principles. • Adolescents can deduce the set of “best” possibilities and imagine ideal worlds (or ideal parents and utopias, political causes, and social issues. They want to design better world, and their thinking allow them to do so. Adolescents can also imagine many possible futures for themselves and may try to decide which is best. Feelings about nay of these ideals may be strong.”[1][1] Woolfolk, Anita. Educatioinal Psychology. 北京：中国轻工业出版社，2007：36

19. However, this is not the case with all the children. “Some students remain at the concrete-operational stage throughout their school years, even throughout life. • However, new experiences, usually those that take place in school, eventually present most students with problems that they cannot solve using concrete opoerations.”[1] • [1] Woolfolk, Anita. Educatioinal Psychology. 北京：中国轻工业出版社，2007：35

20. Eriksonian Eight-Stage Psychosocial Development • Erikson is famous for his thoery of eight-stage psychological development, advocating that an individual goes through eight stages to reach full development of personality. • All the stages are interdependent, with each having its own conflict termed as developmental crisis. • The individual’s performace at later stages is to some extent decided by how he resolves the conflict in the previous one as it affects his sense of personal image and world view. Figure 3.2 is a summary of these stages quoted from Woolfolk (2007).

22. Stage 1: Trust VS Basic Mistrust[1] (0-12/18 months). • During this period, especially at the first few months, the infant develops a sense of trust if it is taken good care of, with its needs for food and comfort being satisfied. • If not, the infant develops a sense of mistrust, which will possibly last the whole childhood or even throughout life. • [1]信任 VS 不信任

23. Stage 2: Automony VS Shame/Doubt[1] (18 months-3 years). • At this stage, children learn to walk and talk to others with the language they have required. • They intend to perform actions like eating, fastening buttons or tying shoes by themselves, learning what he can control and what he cannot. • Such tendencies are considered as autonomy or self-control. • If they are allowed to act as they desire and succeed in what they do, they will be able to build confidence for their abilities to handle the affairs around them. • If not, they will feel shameful and begin to doubt their competence. This kind of doubt may accompany them all life long. • As such, parents need to maintain a balance between protection and over-protection to their children’s activities. [1]自发信为 VS 羞怯/怀疑

24. Stage 3: Initiative VS Guilt[1] (3- 6 years). • With a sense of trust and a feeling of self-control, children at this stage tend to perform an activity in a way they can work out according to their own abilities. • Compared with what they can do at the stage of autonomy, they are now able to plan and take actions by themselves, obtaining happiness by solving a problem they assume important. For example, a child may feel happy by passing a stool to her father who is doing some repair work, squatting. • Another child may feel excited by passing a fork to her mother in the kitchen as she thinks she is doing the same job as her mother. • [1]自主行为 VS 内疚感

25. In this case, parents need to help the child maintain his or her zest for activities on the one hand and, on the other, cultivate the sense that she can not act on all their ambitions. • Too much interference will make the children feel guilty and thus develop a sense of guilt as “they may come to believe that what they want to do is always ‘wrong’”[2]. • [2] Woolfolk, Anita. Educatioinal Psychology. 北京：中国轻工业出版社，2007：68

26. Stage 4: Industry VS Inferiority[1] (6-12 years) • Industry[2] refers to the ability to maintain steady efforts to fulfill an aim. Its synonyms might be diligence or devotedness. It has a close connection with accomplishments. • At this stage, children begin to be aware of the connection between industry or perseverance and the pleasure of accomplishments. The more accomplishments they achieve, the more confident they become. • In this period, however, they have more challenges than they used to in their early schooling, contacting more people like classmates and teachers and participating in more activities like classroom discussions requiring rapid information processing skills. • [1]韧性 VS 自卑感 • [2] The ability to work continuously to fulfill an aim. (韧性)

27. They comprare themselves to or are comprared with their counterparts. • If they fail to cope with the new environment and acquire the new skills, they are more likely to develop a sense of inferiority which will affect the rest of their academic performance.

28. Stage 5: Identity VS Role Confusion[1] (Adolescence; 12-18 years) • At this stage, adolescents begin to construct their own identity on the basis of the self-concept they have developed during childhood. • They begin to answer questions like: “Who am I?” “What kind of person am I?” “In what way am I different from others?” “How do other people think about me?” As such, they formulate about their personal views of who they are and what kind of person they ought to be in the eyes of others or of the kind of person they think they should be and are able to be. • Cooley and others believe the self-concept regulates many behaviors of an individual. [1]自我定义 VS 角色混乱

29. For McCandless, the self-concept is a learned perception coming from environmental rewards and punishement as well as cognitiv evaluation. Its development is largely dependent on an individual’s experiences with success and failure, which aid him understand his compentences.[1] • McCandless (1970) notes, “the self-concept has a motivational function that steers people into choosing lifestyles and behaviors that combine maximum chances of success with maximum rewards. Moreover, the self-concept directs one to engage in behavior that is socially sanctioned and to seek out social situations and deal with conflicts in ways consistent with teself-concept.”[2] • [1] Dusek, Jerone B. Adolescent Development and Behavior. Engliewood, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1987:369 • [2] McCandless, B.R. (1970). Adolescents: Behavior and Development. Hinsdale, IL: The Dryden Press. Cited in Dusek, Jerone B. Adolescent Development and Behavior. Engliewood, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1987:370

30. Too high an identity may lead to frustration because competencies do not measure up to expectations. • Too low an identity may lead to self-denegration and an unwillingness to attempt to obtain goals that would otherwise be within the induviduals’ reach. • They are more likely to encounter problems like being apathetic, rigid, intolerant, dogmatic, or defensive.[1] • [1] Woolfolk, Anita. Educatioinal Psychology. 北京：中国轻工业出版社，2007：71

31. In fact, identity is “a self-developed, internal, and ever-changing organization of one’s strengths and weaknesses, and one’s uniqueness, as well as similarity to others. Identity provides a sense of continuity of the self over time and a sense of integration of the self. … • For William James (1890), the self was simply an object, like any other. … [it] is whatever the individual feels belongs to the self, including the material self and the social self. • James’s material self referred to the indicudual’s possessions, including the body. He referred to this as the “Me” self. • James’s social self was concerned with the views the indicudual felt others held about him. This aspect of the self he referred to as the “I” self.”[1] • [1] Dusek, Jerone B. Adolescent Development and Behavior. Engliewood, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1987:370

32. In his book Educational Psychology, Woolfolk summarized the “four identity alternatives for adolescents” advocated by James Marica and others. • They are identity diffusion, identity foreclosure, moratorium, and identity achievement. • Identity diffustion refers to the status at which individuals are more likely to follow the trend in their peer groups as they themselves have no clear self identity and reasonable goals in life. • Identity foreclosure is the status at which adolescents simply do what authoritative people like parents or religious groups arrange them to do as they believe that should be their only choices.

33. Moratorium was first used by Erikson, referring to the status at which adolescents experience a delay in their decisions for “personal and occupational choices.” • This kind delay is considered “probably healthy” as “the experience is a gradual exploration rather than a traumatic upheaval.” • Identity achievement is the status at which adolescents are determined to work for the options they have made. • Today, “it is not uncommon for the exploration of moratorium to continue into the early 20. About 80% of students change their majors at least once (just ask my mom). • And some adults may achieve a firm identity at one period in their lives, only to reject that identity and achieve a new one later.”[1][1] Woolfolk, Anita. Educatioinal Psychology. 北京：中国轻工业出版社，2007：71

34. Stage 6: Intimacy VS Isolation[1] (Young adulthood; 18-30 years) • [1]友情 VS 孤独

35. Stage 7: Generativity VS Stagnation[1] (Middle Adulthood; 30-60 years) • [1]繁衍 VS 停滞

36. Stage 8: Ego integrity VS Despair[1] (Late adulthood; 60 years afterwards) • [1]自我满足感 VS 绝望感

37. A crucial element in the theory of successive changes in personality, and hence ego modification, was that the dynamics of the society in which a person lived determined to what extent these changes are resolved. By placing the individual in a societal matrix, Mr. Erikson could suggest the degree to which political, economic and social systems, all exterior forces, mold a person's interior emotional life. In that manner he sought a union between psychoanalysis and the social sciences.