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L E A R N I N G O U T C O M E S After reading this chapter, I will be able to:

L E A R N I N G O U T C O M E S After reading this chapter, I will be able to:. Describe the motivation process. Define needs. Explain the hierarchy of needs theory. Differentiate Theory X from Theory Y. Explain the motivational implications of the motivation hygiene theory.

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L E A R N I N G O U T C O M E S After reading this chapter, I will be able to:

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  1. L E A R N I N G O U T C O M E SAfter reading this chapter, I will be able to: • Describe the motivation process. • Define needs. • Explain the hierarchy of needs theory. • Differentiate Theory X from Theory Y. • Explain the motivational implications of the motivation hygiene theory. • Describe the motivational implications of equity theory.

  2. L E A R N I N G O U T C O M E S (cont’d)After reading this chapter, I will be able to: • Explain the key relationships in expectancy theory. • Describe how managers can design individual jobs to maximize employee performance. • Explain the effect of workforce diversity on motivational practices. • Describe how entrepreneurs motivate their employees.

  3. Motivation And Individual Needs • Motivation • The willingness to exert high levels of effort to reach organizational goals, conditioned by the effort’s ability to satisfy some individual need • Need • An internal state that makes certain outcomes appear attractive

  4. Componentsof Motivation Motivation OrganizationalGoals Effort Needs

  5. The Motivation Process EXHIBIT 10.1

  6. Early Theories Of Motivation • Hierarchy of needs theory (Maslow) • there is a hierarchy of five human needs; as each need becomes satisfied, the next need becomes dominant. • Physiological: food, drink, shelter, sex • Safety: physical safety • Social: affiliation with others, affection, friendship • Esteem: Internal (self-respect, autonomy, and achievement); external (status, recognition, and attention) • Self-actualization: personal growth and fulfillment

  7. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Source: Motivation and Personality, 2nd ed., by A. H. Maslow, 1970. Reprinted by permission of Prentice Hall, Inc., Upper Saddle River, New Jersey. EXHIBIT 10.2

  8. Early Theories Of Motivation (cont’d) • Theory X (McGregor) • The assumption that employees dislike work, are lazy, seek to avoid responsibility, and must be coerced to perform • Theory Y • The assumption that employees are creative, seek responsibility, and can exercise self-direction

  9. Theory X Premises • A manager who views employees from a Theory X (negative) perspective believes: • Employees inherently dislike work and, whenever possible, will attempt to avoid it • Because employees dislike work, they must be coerced, controlled, or threatened with punishment to achieve desired goals • Employees will shirk responsibilities and seek formal direction whenever possible • Most workers place security above all other factors associated with work and will display little ambition EXHIBIT 10.3a

  10. Theory Y Premises • A manager who views employees from a Theory Y (positive) perspective believes: • Employees can view work as being as natural as rest or play • Men and women will exercise self-direction and self-control if they are committed to the objectives • The average person can learn to accept, even seek, responsibility • The ability to make good decisions is widely dispersed throughout the population and is not necessarily the sole province of managers EXHIBIT 10.3b

  11. Early Theories Of Motivation (cont’d) • Motivation-Hygiene theory (Herzberg) • intrinsic factors are related to job satisfaction and extrinsic factors are related to job dissatisfaction • Hygiene factors • Factors, such as working conditions and salary, that, when adequate, may eliminate job dissatisfaction but do not necessarily increase job satisfaction • Motivators • Factors, such as recognition and growth, that increase job satisfaction

  12. Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory EXHIBIT 10.4

  13. Contrasting Views of Satisfaction-Dissatisfaction EXHIBIT 10.5

  14. Contemporary Theories Of Motivation • Three-needs theory (McClelland) • The needs for achievement, power, and affiliation are major motives in work • Need for achievement (nAch): the drive to excel, to achieve in relation to a set of standards, to strive to succeed. • Need for power (nPow): The need to make others behave in a way that they would not have behaved otherwise. • Need for affiliation (nAff): The desire for friendly and close interpersonal relationships.

  15. Contemporary Theories Of Motivation (cont’d) • Equity theory (Adams) • Employees perceive what they get from a job situation (outcomes) in relation to what they put into it (inputs) and then compare their input-outcome ratio with the input-outcome ratios of relevant others.

  16. Contemporary Theories Of Motivation: Equity Theory (cont’d) • Referent • In equity theory, the other persons, the systems, or the personal experiences against which individuals compare themselves to assess equity. • The choice of a particular set of referents is related to the information available about referents as well as to the perceived relevance.

  17. Equity Theory Relationships EMPLOYEE’S ASSESSMENT Inequity (underrewarded) Equity Inequity (overrewarded) *Person A is the employee, and Person B is a relevant other or referent. EXHIBIT 10.6

  18. Equity Theory • When employees perceive an inequity they may: • Distort either their own or others’ inputs or outcomes. • Behave so as to induce others to change their inputs or outcomes. • Behave so as to change their own inputs or outcomes. • Choose a different comparison referent. • Quit their job.

  19. Equity Theory Prepositions • If paid according to time, overrewarded employees will produce more than equitably paid employees. • If paid according to quantity of production, overrewarded employees will produce fewer but higher-quality units than equitably paid employees. • If paid according to time, underrewarded employees will produce less or poorer-quality output. • If paid according to quantity of production, under-rewarded employees will produce a large number of low-quality units in comparison with equitably paid employees. EXHIBIT 10.7

  20. Job Design And Motivation • Job characteristics model (JCM) • Hackman and Oldham’s job description model: • The five core job dimensions are skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy, and feedback. • Internal rewards are obtained when: • An employee learns (knowledge of results) through feedback) that he or she personally (experienced responsibility through autonomy of work) has performed well on a task that he or she cares about (experienced meaningfulness through skill variety, task identity, and/or task significance).

  21. Core Job Dimensions • Skill variety • The degree to which the job requires a variety of activities so the worker can use a number of different skills and talents • Task identity • The degree to which the job requires completion of a whole and identifiable piece of work • Task significance • The degree to which the job affects the lives or work of other people

  22. Core Job Dimensions (cont’d) • Autonomy • The degree to which the job provides freedom, independence, and discretion to the individual in scheduling the work and in determining the procedures to be used in carrying it out • Feedback • The degree to which carrying out the work activities required by the job results in the individual’s obtaining direct and clear information about the effectiveness of his or her performance

  23. The Job Characteristics Model EXHIBIT 11.8 Source: J. R. Hackman, “Work Design,” in J. R. Hackman and J. L. Suttle, eds., Improving Life at Work (Glenview, IL: Scott, Foresman, 1977), p.129.

  24. Guidelines for Job Redesign Source: J. R. Hackman and J. L. Suttle eds., Improving Life at Work (Glenview. IL: Scott. Foresman. 1977). With permission of the authors. EXHIBIT 10.9

  25. Expectancy theory (Vroom) • A comprehensive theory of motivation that an individual tends to act in a certain way, in the expectation that the act will be followed by given outcome, and according to the attractiveness of that outcome to the individual. • The extent to which individuals are motivated to perform to get a reward of value to them is based on their belief that their performance will result in the reward they want.

  26. Expectancy theory (Vroom) • Emphasizes self interest in the alignment of rewards with employee wants. • Addresses why employees view certain outcomes (rewards) as attractive or unattractive. • Emphasizes the connections among expected behaviors, rewards, and organizational goals. • Is concerned with individual perceptions and the provision of feedback.

  27. Expectancy Relationships (Linkages) • Effort–performance • The perceived probability that exerting a given amount of effort will lead to performance • Performance–reward • The belief that performing at a particular level will lead to the attainment of a desired outcome • Attractiveness • The importance placed on the potential outcome or reward that can be achieved on the job.

  28. Simplified Expectancy Theory Performance appraisal system Human resources management Training and development EXHIBIT 10.10

  29. Integrating Theories of Motivation EXHIBIT 10.11

  30. Flexibility: The Key To Motivating A Diverse Workforce • Recognizing the different personal needs and goals of individuals • Providing a diversity of rewards to match the varied needs of employees • Being flexible in accommodating the cultural differences within a diverse workforce when attempting to motivate workers.

  31. Motivation and Compensation • Pay-for-performance programs • Compensation plans such as piece-rate plans, profit sharing, and the like that pay employees on the basis of performance measures not directly related to time spent on the job.

  32. Compensation Alternatives • Competency-based compensation • A program that pays and rewards employees on the basis of skills, knowledge, or behaviors they possess • Broad-banding • Pre-set pay level, based on the degree to which competencies exist and allow an employee to contribute to the organization. • Stock options • A program that allows employees to purchase company stock at a fixed price and profit when company performance increases its stock value.

  33. Work-Life Balance: Alternative Work Schedules • Flextime • A scheduling option that allows employees select what their work hours will be within some specified parameters. • Job sharing • A type part-time work that allows two or more workers to split a traditional 40-hour-a-week job • Telecommuting • A system of working at home on a computer that is linked to the office

  34. Employee empowerment: How Entrepreneurs Motivate Employees • Giving employees power by: • Allowing them to complete the whole job. • Having employees work together across departments and functions in the organization. • Using participative decision making in which employees provide input into decisions. • Delegating decisions and duties, turning over the responsibility for carrying them out to employees. • Redesigning their jobs so they have discretion over the way they do their work.

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