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Introduction to Linguistics Chapter 4: Syntax

Introduction to Linguistics Chapter 4: Syntax. Instructor: LIU Hongyong. Review: Morphology (形态学). Morphology is the study of the internal structure of words （词的内部结构） ( morphological structure of words) & processes /rules of word formation （构词法）

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Introduction to Linguistics Chapter 4: Syntax

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  1. Introduction to LinguisticsChapter 4: Syntax Instructor: LIU Hongyong

  2. Review: Morphology (形态学) • Morphology is the study of • the internal structure of words（词的内部结构） (morphological structure of words) & • processes/rules of word formation （构词法） (morphological processes of word-formation) 如何将语素组成词

  3. Follow the flowchart (p.117), and do the required phonological analyses. a. Bontoc b. Swedish Assignment 3: Morphological Analysis(Due date: Nov. 6, 2009)

  4. Syntax Syntax studies the organization of words into phrases, and phrases into sentences. sentence sentence phrase word word Morhpeme

  5. Syntax Question: “组词成句” True or false? Why? Evidence? flat structure sentence sentence word word word word John loves Mary deeply. word

  6. hierarchical structure Syntax sentence phrase 树形分析法 phrase phrase phrase sentence word word word word phrase John loves Mary deeply. 动宾 word 偏正 主谓 层次分析法

  7. Orgnization principles: Linear order & Hierarchical structure • There are two basic principles of sentence orgnization: • linear word order （线性结构） • hierarchical structure （非线性结构、纵向层级结构）

  8. Linear word order • The words in a sentence must occur in a particular sequence if the sentence is to convey the desired meaning. Mary loves Peter. (SVO) Mary Peter loves. (SOV) Loves Mary Peter. (VSO) Peter loves Mary. (OVS) Clearly, the ordering of words in sentences determines whether a sentence is grammatical or not and what the sentence means.

  9. Hierarchical structure • Although linear order is an important principle of sentence organization, sentences are more than just ordered sequences of words. We need more intelligent leaders. more intelligent leaders The same linear order, but different hierarchical structure; therefore, different interpretations (ambiguity) more intelligent leaders

  10. Category （范畴） • Syntactic (word-level) category • word class; parts of speech • Phrasal (phrase) category

  11. Syntactic categories These are the major ones but there are others. D(determiner): articles, demonstrative pronouns, pronouns, quantifiers…

  12. True or false? • a noun is the name of a person, a place, or a thing. • a verb is the name of an action.

  13. Why not? Because it’s simply not true: belief : a common belief hypothesis: the interesting hypothesis weather: the foul weather … they are all nouns… the same with verbs… they are not actions, either: think: He thinks about it. fear: She fears the exam. be: She is a doctor. last: It lasted three days.

  14. Evidence for syntactic categories Morphological-the internal structure of a word Syntactic - the external distribution of a word e.g. Nouns - Nouns are a class of words that all behave similarly with respect to morphology and with respect totheir position in clauses.

  15. Suffixation as evidence:Morphology NOUNS Suffixation as evidence:Morphology If a word is formed from a verb by suffixation of –er‘someone who verbs’, it’s a noun. e.g. sing V + -er → singer N This evidence can be used in two ways: If a word allows –er to be added, and makes a noun, the word must be a verb. sell + -er → seller (N) Therefore sell is a verb If a word is composed of a verb and –er, then it is a noun. read (V) + -er → reader (N) Thereforeread is a noun.

  16. Suffixation as evidence:Morphology VERBS Suffixation as evidence:Morphology Tense endings are added ONLY to verbs. Usually I plan my day at 8 am. Yesterday I plann-ed my day at 7:30. WARNING!! These tests can only tell us whether a word is a noun or a verb in a given sentence. e.g. Yesterday I plann-ed my day at 7:30. - Logic: since a past tense suffix has been added to plan, it must be a verb in this sentence. - Not: since a past tense affix can be added to plan, it must be a verb (always).

  17. Because it can be a noun: e.g. The plan is on the table. This is what is known as syntactic ambiguity. - (syntactic) Ambiguity: A single morpheme like “plan” can be syntactically ambiguous; i.e. it can be a verb or a noun. - Conclusion:the same word can belong to more than one category!

  18. Distribution as evidence for syntactic category Nouns: a. Nouns can appear immediately after an article and before a verb The dog barked. The plan evolved. b. Verbs, prepositions, adverbs, adjectives cannot *The see emerged. *A quickly emerged. . *The at emerged. *The broken emerged.

  19. Summary – syntactic categories In order to determine which syntactic category a word belongs to, we look for: • morphological evidence • syntactic evidence

  20. Phrase & Phrase Structure Rule • Syntactic categories are organized into larger units called “phrases” according to the phrase structure rule. • Phrase Structure Rule (短语结构规则): - tells us how to construct phrases - generate a tree - predicts the ungrammaticality of other structures

  21. Phrase （短语） • 每个短语必须包含一个中心词（head)，该短语以中心词命名。例如，名词短语必须包含一个名词，此名词即为该名词短语的中心词。中心词可以自成短语，也可以带上其他成分成短语。接在中心词后面的是补足语（complement)，用来修饰中心词的成分是指示语（specifier)。

  22. Noun Phrase (NP) • NP → N+PP students of linguitics map of China • NP → AP+N very smart students extremely important thing NP AP NP N PP very smart students of lingusitics

  23. Noun Phrase (NP) The whole phrase is a noun phrase, and under the overall noun phrase, there is another noun phrase. They have the same head. NP AP NP N PP very smart students of lingusitics

  24. Noun Phrase (NP) In order to differentiate the two NPs, we call the NP at the intermediate level N-bar (N') phrase level NP AP NP intermediate level N PP word-level students

  25. Noun Phrase (NP) In order to differentiate the two NPs, we call the NP at the intermediate level N-bar (N') NP AP N’ N PP students

  26. Determiner Phrase (DP) • DP →D+NP thecover of the book D NP head complement • 专有名词或代词自己组成 DP Hong Kong、John、this、that、those Macdonald's

  27. Preposition Phrase (PP) • PP→ P+DP inthe book P DP headcomplement

  28. Verb Phrase (VP) • VP → V+DP played the game • VP → AdvP+V very violently played VP AdvP VP V DP very violently played the game

  29. Verb Phrase (VP) phrase level VP AdvP VP intermediate level V DP word-level very violently played the game

  30. Verb Phrase (VP) VP AdvP V' bar-level V DP very violently played the game

  31. Phrase structure rules and X-bar theory • 上面的短语结构规则并没有囊括英语中所有的短语结构规则，但是我们能使用这些规则生成许多短语结构了。 自七十年代开始，Chomsky (1970)、Jackendoff (1972)对短语结构规则做了重大修改，提出了著名的X杠理论（X' theory)。

  32. X-bar (X') theory 内容1： 每个短语XP必须包含一个中心词X; 而每个中心词必须投射成，而且只能投射成一个短语。

  33. X-bar (X') theory 内容2：中心词可以带另外一个短语做它的补足语，中心词与补足语在层次结构上处于同一层。 XP X (中心词） YP（补足语） 例如，动词 eat 可以带限定词短语 an apple 做它的补足语；介词 on 可以带限定词短语 the table 做它的补足语。

  34. X-bar (X') theory 内容3：中心词可以被另外一个短语修饰，该修饰语短语是中心词的指示语，处于中心词的上一层次。 XP ZP (指示语) ? X (中心词) YP (补足语)

  35. X-bar (X') theory 例如，副词 quickly 可以修饰动词短语 open the door，此时，quickly 处于指示语的位置，结构如下： VP AdvP (指示语) ? VDP (补足语)

  36. X杠理论的由来 • 我们知道 quickly open the door 是一个动词短语，那么在这个动词短语下面的 open the door 是什么呢？如果我们将它也标注成 VP, 那么动词open就是两个动词短语的中心词了。这违背了“每个短语XP必须包含一个中心词X; 而每个中心词必须投射成，而且只能投射成一个短语”的规定。所以为了避免一个中心词投射成多个短语的问题，我们将 open the door 处理为V'（V杠: V-bar）成分，这就是X杠理论的由来。

  37. X-bar (X') theory 有了X杠理论，所有的短语，不管其中心词是什么，我们都能将其表现为下列结构。 A phrase have three levels: the phrasal level, the intermediate (bar) level, and the word level. phrase level XP bar level ZP X’ word level X YP specifier head complement

  38. X-bar (X') theory 如果一个短语没有指示语和补足语，那么中心词自己也必须投射成短语，才能参与句法操作， Obligatory： head DP Optional: specifier complement ZP D’ D YP specifier this complement

  39. X-bar (X') theory 如果一个短语没有指示语和补足语，那么中心词自己也必须投射成短语，才能参与句法操作， Obligatory： head DP Optional: specifier complement D’ D this

  40. X-bar theory 短語 Maximum level VP AP NP 小短語 Intermediate level V’ A’ N’ 中心詞 Minimum level V A N 吃 大 蘋果

  41. VP AP NP V’ A’ N’ V N A 動賓短語： 「吃大蘋果」偏正(定中)短語：「大蘋果」 吃 大 蘋果 偏正 動賓 大 蘋果 吃

  42. X-bar (X') theory • X杠理论中的中心词 X 可以为任何词类，也就是说，所有的短语结构规则可以全部简化为X杠理论。显然X杠理论比短语结构规则具有更强大的概括性与解释力。

  43. 中心語（詞）和另外一個短語組成小短語，小短語和另外一個短語組成短語。（組成了「合成」的短語。）􀂄 • 中心語只跟短語組成小短語。 • 小短語只跟短語組成小短語/短語。 • 詞和詞只能組成合成詞，並不能直接組成短語。 Question: “组词成句” True or false? Why? Evidence?

  44. specifier: 指定語 complement: 補足語 XP 短語1 YP: specifier X’ 小短語1 短語3 X: head ZP: Complement 詞1 短語2

  45. 主謂短語：小明吃蘋果 VP 短語1 DP V’ 小短語1 短語3 V NP 詞1 短語2 小明 吃 蘋果

  46. Adjunct （附加语） • 一个短语除了包括中心词，指示语和补足语之外，还可以有附加语（adjunct）。附加语的作用与指示语类似，都是起修饰和说明作用。 • 一个短语只能有一个指示语和一个补足语，但是可以有多个附加语。

  47. Adjunct phrase level XP YP X’ X’ ZP X’ MP XQP bar level bar level bar level word level

  48. 主謂短語：小明在客廳吃蘋果 小明 在 客廳 吃 蘋果 介詞結構 動賓 偏正（狀中） 主謂

  49. 小明在客廳吃蘋果 XP specifier: 指定語 complement: 補足語 adjunct: 附接語 X’ YP: specifier 短語1 WP: adjunct X’ 主謂短語 小短語1 短語4 X: head ZP: Complement 小短語1 短語3 偏正（狀中）短語 詞1 短語2 動賓短語 小明 在客廳 吃 蘋果

  50. 从上图我们可以看到附加语在指示语的下面，补足语的上面，这三个不同的成分处于不同的层次。 在英语中只有处于相同层次的成分才能并列，不同层次的成分不能并列，例如： a. teachers of English b. teachers from England c. *teachers of English and from England d. *teachers from England and of English e. teachers of English and of French f. teachers from England and from France g. teachers of English from England h. *teachers from England of English

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