Invitation to Research RESEARCH CONCEPTS TERMINOLOGY Roger Clarke, Xamax Consultancy, Canberra Visiting Professor, CS

1. Invitation to ResearchRESEARCH CONCEPTS & TERMINOLOGYRoger Clarke, Xamax Consultancy, CanberraVisiting Professor, CSIS, Uni of Hong Kong Visiting Fellow, Australian National University  http://www.anu.edu.au/people/Roger.Clarke/......Res /40-CTerm.pptebs, 16-20 January 2003

3. Alternative Motivations for Research �Pure Research� �because it�s there� contribute to abstract, theoretical understanding �Applied Research� �I have a hammer, so go and find me a nail� �Instrumentalist Research� �I have a problem, so go and find me a solution�

4. The Nature of Research Outcomes Exploratory The first depiction of something new Descriptive The depiction of a behaviour or a domain Explanatory Systemic explanation of how past behaviours arose Ascription of causes to prior occurrences �Predictive� Statement of what occurrences will arise Systemic explanation of how behaviours will arise Statement and explanation of the effect particular interventions will have Normative Statement of interventions necessary to achieve desired outcomes Statement of desired outcomes

5. The Nature of Data(Measurement Scales) Quantitative Ratio a natural zero Cardinal / Interval no natural zero Ranked Ordinal sequence (numbers) Qualitative Category Ordinal sequence (text) Nominal differentiation Dichotomous it is or it isn�t

6. Likert Scales A contrived Ranked Ordinal Scalemuch-used in attitudinal research Usually 5, 7 or 9 choices Usually anchored by end-points such as Strongly Disagree ... Strongly Agreeand with a neutral-sounding mid-point Usually very long lists of questions The data is generally processedas though it were on an Interval Scale

7. Characteristics of Data Collection Passive (Observation)or Active (Response Elicitation) Purpose: Disguised or Openly Declared Structured, Semi-Structured or Unstructured In Person, By Telephone, By Written Form (e.g. Mail),By Email/Web-Form,By Mechanical Means

8. Unit of Analysis A Person An Event An Object A Body of IndividualsGroup, Organisational Unit, Organisation A Relationship, e.g. a Dyad An AggregateCensus District, Industry Segment or Sector

9. Time HorizonStudy Setting Snapshot Cross-Sectional (snapshots of multiples) Longitudinal Contrived or Naturalistic Researcher Interference � degree and nature

10. An Eternal Tension in ResearchRelevance vs. Rigour Associations with Rigour Independence, through Pure Research Motivation Outcomes that are Explanatory Quantitative Data / Ratio Scales / Stat�l Analysis Determinable Causal Relationships Associations with Relevance Motivation that is Instrumental, or Applied Outcomes that are �Predictive� and Normative Whatever Data is Collectible Complex Interdependencies

11. The Concept of Causality One or more Variables (the Cause) are asserted to determine another Variable (the Effect) Determinant CauseThat factor which is the necessary and sufficient condition for some subsequent effect Probabilistic CausesThose factors that are necessary but individually not sufficient conditions for some subsequent effect

12. Evidence of Causality Co-variation / Correlation Time Order, and Chaining Absence of other variables thatmight be the real cause Plausibility / Systemic Relationship

13. Test Case I am a manufacturer of raincoats. I want to increase sales. I increase my advertising budget by 100%. Sales go up 20%. What is the relationship between the increase in the advertising budget and the increase in sales?

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18. Systems Thinking, Modelling, CyberneticsImplications for Causality Systems Thinking and Modelling underlinethe interconnectedness of phenomena,i.e. they are oriented towards holism / gestalt Measures of Dependent Variables arise from a constellation of many Independent Variables Their interdependence may be too complexto be able to expressed by simple rules Cybernetics suggests that �Independent� Variables may be subject to influence by �Dependent� Variables Hence the notion of Causality appears na�ve