MODERN ERA: 1750 - 1914

1. MODERN ERA:1750 - 1914 CHANGES IN THE NATURE AND FUNCTIONS OF STATE STRUCTURES

2. REVOLUTIONARY IDEAS Revolution A popular idea, means to an end A way to restructure society Popular sovereignty Relocating sovereignty in the people Traditional monarchs Claimed a "divine right" to rule Derived from God, unquestionable Monarch unanswerable to people Constitutional Limitations Aristocracy, Enlightenment challenged king Glorious Revolution of 1688 Made the monarch responsible to the people John Locke's theory of contractual government Authority comes from the consent of the governed Freedom and equality Demands for freedom of worship Freedom of expression, assembly Demands for political and legal equality Condemned legal, social privileges of aristocrats Jean-Jacques Rousseau, The Social Contract Equality not extended to all Women, Peasants, laborers, slaves, or people of color Originally only extended to tax paying males with education Ideals of Enlightenment were significant global influence

3. TYPES OF REVOLUTIONS Aristocratic Revolution Aristocracy fights to preserve privileges Often against royal absolutism Rarely for other classes rights Usually ends with constitution, limits on monarchy English Glorious Revolution (1688) is an example Bourgeois (liberal) Revolution Middle class seeks rights equal to nobility Extension of franchise, ability to hold office Issues of taxation often involved Reforms limited and rarely radical, franchise limited American (1776), French (1789), Meiji Restoration (1867) Latin American Revolutions (1820s) Mass revolutions Most of society effected and involved Often goals are quite radical Methods to achieve are often quite violent Nationalist Revolutions China (1911) Haitian Revolution (1793) Socialist Revolutions Worker-Oriented or Peasant-Oriented Russian Revolution (1905), Mexican Revolution (1910)

4. REFORM Often system allowed change without radical means, violence Reform was a theme of 1750 � 1914 Reform movements Increased, responsive democratic representation, institutions Expansion of male suffrage was the key issue One of the hallmarks of a democratic society Very successful in US, Western Europe, British settler colonies, Japan Less so in Latin America, Russia, Eastern Europe, Africa, Asia Abolition of slavery, serfdom Abolition movement was very successful Other forms of coercive labor replaced them Racial, social equality did not follow Women Rights One goal was full female franchise Not achieved until after 1914 but progress Foreign Reform Movements India Civil Service Act China Self-Strengthening Tanzimat (Turkey) Meiji Reforms (Japan)

5. THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION Tension between Britain, American colonies Legacy of Seven Years' War British debt, North American tax burden Colonists increasingly independent minded Colonial protest Over taxes, trade policies, Parliamentary rule Colonial boycott of British goods Attacks on British officials; Boston Tea Party, 1773 Political protest over representation in Parliament Continental Congress, 1774 British troops, colonial militia skirmished at the village of Lexington, 1775 The Declaration of Independence, 4 July 1776 Thirteen united States of America severed ties with Britain Declaration inspired by Enlightenment, Locke's theory of government The American Revolution, 1775-1781 British advantages: strong government, navy, army, loyalists in colonies American advantages: European allies, George Washington's leadership Weary of a costly conflict, British forces surrendered in 1781 Building an independent state: Constitutional Convention, 1787 Constitution guaranteed freedom of press, of speech, and of religion Republic based on principles of freedom, equality, popular sovereignty Full legal and political rights were granted only to men of property

6. FRENCH REVOLUTION & NAPOLEON Summoning the Estates General Financial crisis: half of government revenue went to national debt King Louis XVI forced to summon Estates General to raise new taxes Many representatives wanted sweeping political and social reform First and Second Estates (nobles, clergy) tried to limit Third Estate (commoners) National Assembly Formed by representatives of Third Estate, 17 June 1789 Demanded a written constitution and popular sovereignty Angry mob seized the Bastille on 14 July, sparked insurrections in many cities National Assembly wrote the "Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen" "Liberty, equality, and fraternity�: slogan and values of the National Assembly The Assembly abolished the feudal system, altered the role of church France became a constitutional monarchy, 1791 The Convention and the Reign of Terror Replaced National Assembly under new constitution, 1791 Austrian and Prussian armies invaded France to restore ancien r�gime Convention abolished the monarchy and proclaimed France a republic King Louis XVI and Queen Marie Antoinette executed, 1793 Radical Jacobins dominated Convention in 1793-94 in "reign of terror" Revolutionary changes: in religion, dress, calendar, women's rights The Directory, 1795-1799 A conservative reaction against the excesses of the Convention Executed the Jacobin leader Robespierre, July 1794 Napoleonic France was Enlightened Despotism Brought stability: blended monarchy, autocracy, democracy Made peace with the Roman Catholic church and pope Reformed French economic, banking system: mercantilism Extended freedom of religion to Protestants and Jews Civil Code of 1804: political and legal equality for all adult men Code Napoleon: becomes one of the world�s great legal traditions Restricted individual freedom, especially speech and press

7. THE POLITICAL SPECTRUM

8. HAITIAN REVOLUTION Saint-Domingue Rich French colony on western Hispaniola Society dominated by small white planter class 90 percent of population were slaves Horrendous working conditions Large communities of escaped slaves (maroons) Ideas of Enlightenment reached educated blacks Free blacks fought in American war Widespread discontent White settlers sought self-governance Gens de couleur sought political rights Slaves wanted freedom Slave revolt began in 1791 Factions of white settlers, gens de couleur, slaves battled each other French troops arrived in 1792; British, Spanish intervened in 1793 Slaves conquer whole island including Spanish part Whites driven into exile, executed Toussaint Louverture (1744-1803) Son of slaves, literate, son of Enlightenment Skilled organizer, built strong, disciplined army Controlled most of Saint-Domingue by 1797 Created a constitution in 1801 Arrested by French troops; died in jail, 1803 Haiti Yellow fever ravaged French troops; defeated, driven out by slave armies Declared independence in 1803; republic established in 1804 Civil War followed until 1810; kingdom to 1820 Dominican Republic independent in 1844

9. INDEPENDENCE IN LATIN AMERICA Latin American society rigidly hierarchical Social classes: peninsulares, creoles, mestizos, slaves, indigenous peoples Creoles sought to displace the peninsulares but retain their privileged position Mestizos form the largest part of population, wanted rights Mexican independence Napoleon's invasion of Spain in 1807 weakened royal control of colonies 1810: peasant revolt in Mexico led by Hidalgo, defeated by conservative creoles 1821: Mexico briefly a military dictatorship, then in 1822 a republic Southern Viceroyalty of New Spain split into several independent states in 1830s Simon Bolivar to 1822 Led independence movement in South America Inspired by George Washington, took arms against Spanish rule in 1811 Creole forces overcame Spanish armies throughout South America, 1824 Bolivar's effort of creating the Gran Colombia failed in 1830s Jose de San Martin to 1825 Led independence movements in Bolivia, Argentina, Chile United efforts with Bolivar Brazilian independence Portuguese royal court fled to Rio de Janeiro, 1807 Brazil declared a separate kingdom during exilel The king's son, Pedro, agreed to Brazilian independence, 1821 Became Emperor Pedro I in the independent Brazil (reigned 1822-1834) Creole dominance in Latin America Independence brought little social change in Latin America Principal beneficiaries were creole elites Creole elite merged with peninsulares to rule Latin America Mestizos acquired some benefits, Indians/blacks marginalized Caribbean remained largely under European control

10. THE NEW AMERICAN MAP

11. LATIN AMERICA Old Problems confront new realities Leaders came from Enlightenment: spoke of equality, freedom No allowance freedom of religion Slavery ended but not exploitation of poor, Indians Equality was too threatening to elite Democracy uncommon, rich men voted Old color distinctions did not disappear rapidly, easily, or at all Political fragmentation Political instability after independence Creole leaders ruled but had little experience with self-government White minority dominated politics Peasant majority was without power Political instability aggravated by division among elites Constant argument between centralizing and federalizing pressures Conflicts between farmers, ranchers, indigenous peoples common Intense fighting in Argentina, Chile; modern weapons against native peoples Colonists had pacified most productive land by 1870s Caudillos, Caudillism, Politics and the Church Military leaders who held power after revolutionary era Used military to seize power, stay in control; interested only in power for own sake Opposed liberalizing effects; often made alliances with aristocratic elites, land owners Ruled through the church and opposed an secularization, reform of society Mexico: war and reform from 1821-1911 Shifted from monarchy to republic to caudillo rule La Reforma: liberal movement in 1850s led by President Benito Juarez Granted universal male suffrage; limited power of priests and military Reforms strongly opposed by landowning elites

12. NATIONALISM Born in France (Joan of Arc), spread abroad during French Revolution Idea began as radical, adopted by liberals, used by conservatives An idea which could unify society across social classes Many aspects similar to religion, faith Loyalty to state often replaces loyalty to church, monarch Dominated 19th century Cultural nationalism An expression of national identity Emphasized common historical experience Used folk culture, literature, music Illustrated national spirit, distinctiveness Political nationalism more intense in the nineteenth century Demanded loyalty, solidarity from national group Minorities sought independence as national community Young Italy formed by Giuseppe Mazzini World-wide spread Contact with Europeans introduced others to idea of nationalism Nationalism often brought with it western ideas, structures Strongest in Middle East, India, Japan Zionism Jewish nationalism as a response to European anti-Semitism Movement founded by Theodor Herzl to create Jewish state in Palestine Jewish state of Israel finally created in 1948

13. EMERGENCE OF IDEOLOGIES Conservatism Called the Ancien Regime Resisted change, opposed revolutions Importance of continuity, tradition, aristocracy Edmund Burke Viewed society as organism that changed slowly over time American Revolution: natural, logical outcome of history French Revolution: violent and irresponsible Congress of Vienna was a Conservative restoration Restored Balance of Power; ruled through great powers Monarchy was at heart of conservatism Liberalism Welcomed controlled change as an agent of progress Strongly middle class, support economic reform, education to help industrialization Wanted to reform political structure, increase electorate slightly Championed freedom, equality, democracy, written constitutions Limits on state power, interference in individual freedoms John Stuart Mill championed individual freedom and minority rights Radicalism Accepted liberal ideas but wanted universal voting rights Many wanted outright democracy, social reforms in interests of lower classes A few were socialists, attacked all private property, class status Saw radical solutions (revolution) as only way to status quo Represented by French Revolution, democracy, early nationalism Nationalism often both radical and liberal but largely anti-conservative

14. IMAGINED COMMUNITIES Concert of Europe 1815 - 1860 Congress of Vienna, 1814-15 Conservative victory: restore old order after defeat of Napoleon Maintained balance of power in Europe for a century Failed in repressing nationalist and revolutionary ideas Concert of European great powers called Holy Alliance UK, Russia, Prussia, Austria, France working in �concert� Attempted to prevent revolutions, change Intervened militarily to oppose change Often forced to limit, control changes Nationalist rebellions Against old order throughout nineteenth century 1800s: Haiti, Latin America 1820s Greek Revolution: rebels overcame Ottoman rule in 1827 Mehmet Ali in Egypt, defeated by French, English, Russians 1830/1848 Italy, Belgium, France, Spain, Portugal, Poland, Austria, Germany Conservatism usually restored but revolutionary ideals persisted Imagined Communities Groups begin to form based on a perceived sense of community Each group defined by agreed upon set of values, goals

15. THE SOCIALIST CHALLENGE Socialism Arose as an outgrowth of the Industrial Revolution Accelerated by the horrible conditions of the workers in the cities Utopian socialists Charles Fourier, Robert Owen, and their followers Established model communities based on principle of equality Stressed cooperative control of industry, education for all children Marxian Socialists (Communists) Marx (1818-1883), Engels (1820-1895), leading socialists Scorned the utopian socialists as unrealistic, unproductive Critique of industrial capitalism Unrestrained competition led to ruthless exploitation of working class State, courts, police: all tools of the capitalist ruling class The Communist Manifesto, 1848 Claimed excesses of capitalism would lead to a communist revolution Revolution would wipe away capitalism and establish a socialist society �Dictatorship of the proletariat" would destroy capitalism Socialism would follow; a fair, just, and egalitarian society Ideas dominated European, international socialism throughout 19th century Revisionism: Democratic Socialism and Reform Socialism Combined aspects of socialism with democracy Public ownership of means of production, regulation of industries Limits to private property, accumulation of wealth Power achieved democratically through elections, trade unions Social reform came gradually, through legislative measures Regulated hours and restricted work for women and children Under Bismarck, Germany provided medical insurance and social security Trade unions formed to represent interests of industrial workers Faced stiff opposition from employers and governments Forced employers to be more responsive to workers' needs; averted violence Socialist parties began to compete in elections, seek expanded electorate

16. UNIFICATION OF ITALY, GERMANY Italy After Congress of Vienna Italy divided into small states: all states except Sardinia, Papacy ruled by foreign dynasties Austria was the preeminent power in Italy Mazzini, Nationalist, formed Young Italy inspired uprisings against foreign rule 1848 Nationalist revolution destroyed by Austrian troops Sardinia and Cavour Italian Sardinia only ethnic Italian state Prime Minister of Sardinia becomes leader of nationalists Expelled Austrian authorities in northern Italy, 1859 with French aide Garibaldi Revolutionary nationalist, democrat Staged revolutions, later seized control of Southern Italy 1860-1870: Italian states united under Sardinia Germany After Congress of Vienna Dominated by Austrian von Metternich German Confederacy a collection of independent states dominated by Austria Prussia the largest German state but limited in action by Austria Metternich�s System: preserved conservatism, persecuted liberalism, hated nationalism 1848 Revolution Destroyed by Austria Ended hope of liberalism, constitutionalism, national unification Left Prussia humiliated, looking for revenge Prussian and Otto von Bismarck (1815-1898) Created a united Germany through blood and iron Used conservatism, militarism married with nationalism Bismarck provoked three wars that swelled German pride Defeated Austria, France to unify Germany under Prussia 1871, Prussian king proclaimed emperor of the Second Reich

17. MAPS OF UNIFICATION

18. THE UNITED STATES Jacksonian Democracy Expansion of electorate to include poorer, western Americans By 1820s all adult white men could vote and hold office Constant tension between states rights, federal powers Rapid westward expansion after the revolution Britain ceded lands east of Mississippi to US 1803, US purchased France's Louisiana Territory By 1840s, coast-to-coast expansion was claimed as �manifest destiny� The Mexican-American War, 1845-1848 Conflict with indigenous peoples followed 1830, Indian Removal Act forced eastern Indians to move west of Mississippi Thousands died on the "Trail of Tears" to Oklahoma Stiff resistance to expansion: Battle of Little Big Horn, 1876, Sioux victory U.S. massacre at Wounded Knee, 1890, ended Indian Wars An Era of Compromise Avoided Conflict 1820-1854 North had the population, dominated House of Representatives South wanted to preserve slavery but would lose a vote in House Missouri Compromise in 1820 admitted one slave, one free state South able to block abolition of slavery in Senate Sectional conflict 19th century cotton cultivation in south was dependent on slave labor Northern states did not want slavery expanded into new territories Expansion, new states, fugitive slave law made compromise impossible Abraham Lincoln elected president, 1860; publicly opposed to slavery The U.S. Civil War, 1861-1865 With Lincoln's election, eleven southern states seceded from the Union Southerners believed their economy of cotton and slaves was self-sufficient Northerners fought to preserve the Union as much as in opposition to slavery In 1863, Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation made abolition goal of the war By 1865, the industrial north defeated the agricultural south The war ended slavery, enhanced authority of the federal government

19. USA IN MAPS

20. CANADIAN DOMINION Independence came without war Autonomy and division characterized Canadian history Distance from England, isolation in north and interior led to self-government, autonomy Always a contest between English speaking, French speaking groups Immigrants and Amerindians dominated in the interior Eastern Canada (Quebec, Ontario, Maritime Provinces) dominate Canada French Quebec taken by Britain after the Seven Years' War Quebec Act was a large cause of war with American colonies British authorities made large concessions to French Canadians After 1781, many British loyalists fled United States to seek refuge in Canada The War of 1812 unified Canada against U.S. invaders Anti-U.S. sentiments due to US invasions, pillaging Created sense of unity among French and British Canadians 1830s Increased Irish, English, Scottish, German immigration Tensions between French, growing English population Metis Rebellion: French Indians rebel in west 1840-1867, British granted home rule to Canadians Dominion of Canada created in 1867 Federal constitutional monarchy Government with a governor-general acting for British monarch Canadian Parliament and Provincial governments share rule Britain retained jurisdiction over foreign affairs until 1931 Prime Minister John Macdonald strengthens Canadian independence Persuaded western and maritime provinces to join the Dominion, 1860s Transcontinental railroad completed, 1885 Settlement of Western plains by Scandinavian, German, Ukrainian immigrants Development of Canada as major exporter of grain, dairy products

21. CANADA IN IMAGES

22. EURASIAN SOCIETIES AT A CROSSROAD Threatened Societies SW Asia: Ottoman Empire, Persia Eastern Europe: Russia, Austria-Hungary East Asia: China, Korea, and Japan Southeast Asia: Vietnam, Thailand Common problems Military weakness, vulnerability to foreign threats Internal weakness especially from disaffected groups Economic problems, financial difficulties Corruption and unresponsive elites Issues of westernization vs. modernization Western interests often dominate government, economy Reform efforts Attempts at political and educational reform Attempts at industrialization Often turned to western models Different results of reforms Ottoman Empire, Austria, Russia, Iran, and China Reforms unsuccessful Societies on the verge of collapse Japan Reform in Japan was more thorough Japan emerged as an industrial power Korea, Vietnam, Thailand Issues complicated by colonialism, imperialism Korea annexed by Japan; Indochina annexed by France Thailand maintains independence as a buffer between France, Great Britain

23. EURASIA IN 1871

24. OTTOMAN DECLINE Military decline since the late seventeenth century Ottoman forces behind European armies in strategy, tactics, weaponry, training Janissary corps politically corrupt, undisciplined, unable to fight Provincial governors gained power, private armies Russia made war on Ottomans to divert domestic problems Austria, other European powers support local Christians independence Lost Caucasus and central Asia to Russia Western frontiers to Austria Balkan provinces to Greece and Serbia Egypt gained autonomy after Napoleon's failed campaign in 1798 Egyptian general Muhammad Ali built a powerful, modern army Ali's army threatened Ottomans, made Egypt an autonomous province France annexes Muslim Algeria in 1830 and Tunisia in 1882 The State Government was cumbersome, bureaucratized, medieval State was multinational and not all Muslim Power resided often with the provincial governors, elite Unwilling to adopt modern European methods or reform infrastructure Dominated by bureaucrats, landed elite unwilling to change Sultan does not wish to change; Islam unwilling to admit it has fallen Economic difficulties began in seventeenth century Less trade through empire as Europeans shifted to the Atlantic Ocean basin Exported raw materials, imported European manufactured goods Heavily depended on foreign loans, half of the revenues paid to loan interest Corruption, overtaxation of peasants further weakens Ottoman state Foreigners began to administer the debts of the Ottoman state by 1882 The "capitulations": European domination of Ottoman economy Extraterritoriality: Europeans exempt from Ottoman law within the empire Could operate tax-free, levy their own duties in Ottoman ports Deprived empire of desperately needed income Similar problems in most Muslim states including Persia, Morocco

25. OTTOMAN REFORM, REORGANIZATION Attempt to reform military Led to violent Janissary revolt (1807-1808), suppression of Janissaries Reformer Mahmud II (1808-1839) became sultan after revolt Janissaries resisted, Mahmud had them killed; reforms followed He built an European-style army, academies, schools, roads, and telegraph Legal, educational reforms Called Tanzimat ("reorganization") era (1839-1876) Ruling class sought sweeping restructuring to strengthen state Broad legal reforms, modeled after Napoleon's civic code State reform of education (1846), free and compulsory primary education (1869) Undermined authority of the ulama, enhanced the state authority Opposition to Tanzimat reforms Religious conservatives critical of attack on Islamic law and tradition Legal equality for minorities resented by some, even a few minority leaders Young Ottomans wanted more reform: freedom, autonomy, decentralization High-level bureaucrats wanted more power, checks on the sultan's power Cycles of reform and repression 1876, coup staged by bureaucrats who demanded a constitutional government New sultan Abd al-Hamid II (1876-1909) Proved an autocrat: suspended constitution, dissolved parliament, and punished liberals Reformed army and administration: became source of the new opposition The Young Turks After 1889, an active body of opposition led by army, navy officers Called for universal suffrage, equality, freedom, secularization, women's rights Forced Abd al-Hamid to restore constitution, dethroned him (1909) Nationalistic: favored Turkish dominance within empire, led to Arab resistance The empire survived only because of distrust among European powers

26. MUSLIM RESISTANCE Resistance Muslim universities Frequently organized education around western model Educated several generations of students Muslim Army Officers in Service of Europeans Often educated in western style universities, learned western ideas Become source of anti-Western activities even while supporting reform Revolt in the Sudan Egypt nominally ruled Sudan, attempted to enforce control Egypt able to control Nile farmers; opposition comes from nomads, herders Rule greatly resented as it was corrupt, overtaxed peasants British pressure Egyptians to eradicate slavery, upsetting Muslims (Koran allows) Muhammad Achmad �The Mahdi� (1870s) Direct descendant of the Prophet Muhammad; proclaims jihad against Egyptians, British masters Wahhabis Reformer: A very puritanical form of Islam, seeks to purify Islam Purge Islam of problems; reform, modernize but not at expense to Islam Overran all of Sudan, threatens Egypt, killed British commander at Khartoum Khalifa Abdallahi and the Mahdist state The Mahdi dies; his successor builds an Islamic state under rule of Koran Threatens to overrun all of Middle East, drive out foreigners, westernizers; British intervene Reality: Reformers Discredited Religious revivalists who wanted a return to a pure Islam proved unsuccessful Reformers willing to borrow some western ideas could not win over people British (Europeans) will send in army to crush revolts, threats to Europeans

27. QING (MANCHU) CHINA Qing China (1622 � 1911) Nomadic dynasty from Manchuria To rule, maintained strict separation of Chinese, Manchu Chinese not allowed to settle in Manchuria Manchurians not allowed to marry Chinese Retained much of Chinese political traditions, institutions Retained examination system Ruled through Confucian scholars Qing Army Manchurian nomadic army based on cavalry Unwilling to use modern weapons Rot from Within begins in 18th century Emperor isolated, ineffective Surrounded by eunuchs, advisors who kept him isolated Lived in Forbidden City at center of Beijing Extreme politics amongst bureaucrats, eunuchs, harem Bureaucracy Too large and cumbersome, corrupt and conservative Examination system riddled with favoritism, elitism, cheating Wealthy buy positions in bureaucracy Bureaucrats had no qualifications, training Diversion of state funds to private families Public works (dikes, water management) reduced, river silted Military in decline, fleet in trouble, armies unreliable Peasants lot deteriorated Food shortages, landlord demands Bandits on roads, beggars everywhere Lack of innovation, reform or insight

28. CHINA UNDER PRESSURE The Taiping rebellion Internal turmoil in China in the later nineteenth century Population grew by 50 percent; land and food more slowly; poverty strained resources Other problems: official corruption, drug addiction Four major rebellions in 1850s and 1860s; the most dangerous was the Taiping The Taiping ("Great Peace") program proposed by Hong Xiuquan Called for end of Qing dynasty; resented Manchu rule Radical social change: no private property, footbinding, concubinage Popular in southeast China; seized Nanjing (1853), moved on Beijing Taiping defeat by combined Qing and foreign troops Gentry sided with government; regional armies had European weapons Taipings defeated in 1864; the war claimed twenty to thirty million lives Reform frustrated The Self-Strengthening Movement (1860-1895) Blended Chinese cultural traditions with European industrial technology Built shipyards, railroads, weapon industries, steel foundries, academies Not enough industry to make a significant change Powerful empress dowager Cixi opposed changes The hundred-days reforms (1898) Two Confucian scholars advised radical changes in imperial system Young emperor Guangxu inspired to launch wide-range reforms Movement crushed by Cixi; emperor imprisoned; reformers killed The Boxer rebellion Real name: the Society of Righteous and Harmonious Fists, 1899-1900 Local militia attacked foreigners, foreign legations, Chinese Christians Crushed by European and Japanese troops Chinese forced to sign humiliating treaties Collapse of Qing dynasty in 1912

29. JAPAN: SHOGUN TO EMPEROR Crisis and reform in early nineteenth century Emperor isolated, secluded; shogun = military dictator Centralized bureaucracy; alliances with feudal lords Japan not unaware of what was going on in wider world Dutch allowed to visit Japan at Nagasaki once a year Crisis Crop failure, high taxes on agriculture, rising rice prices All led to protests and rebellions Reforms and ideas conflict Government: Neo-Confucian conservative reforms Dutch Learning: Support western studies, reforms, working with west; anti-Chinese National Studies: praised Japanese traditions, emperor, Shinto led to ultranationalism Foreign pressure on Japan European wanted her to reverse long-standing closed door policy Europeans wanted to trade, wanted safe ports for whaling fleets 1844 requests by British, French, U.S. for the right of entry rebuffed 1853 U.S. Commodore Perry sailed U.S. fleet to Tokyo Bay, demanded entry Japan forced to accept unequal treaties with U.S., other western countries The end of Tokugawa rule British, French, Russians demand, receive similar treaties to US Widespread opposition to shogun rule, especially in provinces Dissidents rallied around emperor in Kyoto, attack foreigners Tosa-Satsuma Samurai Rebellion/Civil War breaks out in 1866 The Meiji restoration, 1868 Dissident Samurai militia loyal to emperor defeats Shogun�s troops The boy emperor Mutsuhito, or Meiji, regained authority; Shogunate abolished End of almost seven centuries of military rule in Japan

30. JAPAN: MEIJI ERA Meiji government welcomed foreign expertise Fukuzawa Yukichi studied western constitutions and education Ito Hirobumi helped build Japanese constitutional government Social Revolution: 1873 - 1876 Abolition of the feudal order essential to new government Daimyo and samurai lost status, privileges; class abolished Samurai issued bonds to pay for loss, but inflation led to impoverishment Samurai rebelled but the new national conscript army put rebellion down Some went into business, created western-style companies (Mitsubishi) Districts reorganized to break up old feudal domains Emperor created new nobility based on English style House of Peers Revamping tax system Converted grain taxes to a fixed money tax: more reliable income for state Assessed taxes on potential productivity of arable land Constitutional government, the emperor's "gift" to the people in 1889 Emperor remained supreme, limited the rights of the people Less than 5 percent of adult males could vote Legislature, the Diet, was an opportunity for debate and dissent but limited powers Remodeling the economy and infrastructure Transportation: railroads, telegraph, steamships Education: universal primary and secondary; competitive universities Industry: privately owned, government controlled arms industry Zaibatsu: powerful financial combines merged banking, manufacturing, merchants Costs of economic development borne by Japanese people Land tax Cost peasants 40 percent to 50 percent of crop yield Provided 90 percent of state revenue Peasant uprisings crushed; little done to alleviate suffering Labor movement also crushed; Meiji law treated unions and strikes as criminal Japan became an industrial power in a single generation Ended unequal treaties in 1899 Defeated China in 1895 and Russia in 1904

31. AFRICA Africa 1750 � 1850 North Africa nominally part of the Ottoman Empire Sudan, Sahel Africa had most powerful, developed states West Africa forest kingdoms part of the Atlantic slave trade East Africa dominated by native kingdoms, Swahili trading states South Africa: population dispersal, state building of the Ngoni Few European possessions in Africa Atlantic (not Islamic) slave trade ended in early 19th century Age of Exploration leads to Imperialism Europeans explore Africa, developed interest in Africa Permitted by technology Transportation, weaponry made it easy Medicines made it possible Africa was the center, objective of imperialism Africa was partitioned between Europeans Only Ethiopia and Liberia remained independent Infrastructures and Changes Political Colonial powers ignored indigenous peoples almost totally Set boundaries to states, destroying tribes, unity Ruled indirectly through local elites, who they could remove at will Undermined traditional systems of rule Chiefs derived authority from gods Missionaries challenge traditional religion Chiefs lost prestige associated with land as people earned money Western educated locals challenge traditional ways Economic Exploitation is the key word Minerals solely for benefit of mother country Cash crops and agriculture dominated by European crops, interests Europeans take best, richest lands for cattle, farming Building of railroads, infrastructure especially ports Breakdown of African barter system; replaced by monetary system Africans forced to work on European farms, in European factories by tax, levies, force Loss of African self-sufficiency

32. MAPPING AFRICA, 1830

33. AFRICA 1914

34. RUSSIA: EMPIRE UNDER PRESSURE Post-1812 Great concern with defense, liberal ideas as threat to old order Government introduced reforms to improve bureaucracy Made an alliance with the conservative powers of Europe to maintain order December Uprising 1825 Death of Alexander I prompted some western-oriented officers to rebel Suppressed mercilessly by new tsar Nicholas I Orthodoxy, autocracy and nationality State became very repressive, secret police Policeman of Europe: used army to suppress revolutions Suppressed rebellion in Poland Policy of foreign wars to divert domestic problems Serfdom Issue Russia needed work force in order to industrial Serfdom not efficient Lack of workers in cities an obstacle to economic development Gap between western, eastern Europe economic systems Emancipation of serfs by Alexander II begun in 1863 Due to loss in Crimean War Serfs gained right to own land, got most of the land from nobles Nobles kept best and gave worst to serfs Serfs had no political rights; had to pay a redemption tax on land: kept them in permanent debt Emancipation did not increase agricultural production Tsar was careful to preserve aristocratic order; serfs received no political rights Political and legal reforms followed 1864: creation of zemstvos Local assemblies with representatives from all classes Tended to only see local interests and not national concerns; legal reform more successful A weak system: nobles dominated, tsar held veto power Small middle class grew; improved corps of army officers; middle class politicians, bureaucrats Literacy increased; readership spread; some women enter intellectual community

35. RUSSIAN REPRESSION & MARXISM Cycles of protest and repression Peasants Often landless, no political power Frustrated by lack of meaningful reform Peasant uprisings become more common than serf as frustration heightened Population increased as potato introduced, increasing pressures on society Social Protest Antigovernment protest and revolutionary activity increased in 1870s Middle Class, some aristocrats advocated rights, political representation Radical Intelligentsia advocated socialism and anarchism, recruited in countryside Repression by tsarist authorities: secret police, censorship Russification: sparked ethnic nationalism, attacks on Jews tolerated Terrorism emerges as a tool of opposition Radicals wanted solution to social issue from a Russian perspective Young intellectuals went directly to the peasants Most opposed westernization, autocracy, capitalism Many became peasant anarchists Alexander II, the reforming tsar, assassinated by a bomb in 1881 Nicholas II (1894-1917), more oppressive, conservative ruler Marxism and the Reality of Russia Marx foresaw a revolution by workers Russia lacked lack worker base; society was largely peasant Workers tended to be radical but misdirected Russia lacked a middle class running society prior to revolution The Bolsheviks (Russian Marxists) & Vladimir Ilyich Lenin From middle class bureaucratic family, was an intellectual Argued that proletariat was developing in advance of revolution Felt Russia could have a revolution without a middle class phase Organized an elite revolutionary party to lead workers, peasants Organized the Bolsheviks Party was secretive as Russian secret police everywhere Infiltrated unions, workers organizations, peasant groups Agitated against government, organized secret cells to lead revolution

36. MARXISM:Workerswill stage arevolution and overthrowcapitalism, stateLENINISM:Will only succeed withthe leadership of an elitegroup ofrevolutionaries

37. RUSSIAN REVOLUTION OF 1905 Russian Revolution of 1905 Military defeat, humiliation in Russo-Japanese War was cause Russia always diverted domestic tension by short, successful wars In 1870s, 1880s had expanded against Ottoman Empire Massive protests followed news of defeat Workers mounted general strikes in St. Petersburg, Moscow Peasant insurrections in countryside against landlords Police repressions ineffective, just upset people Bloody Sunday massacre Poor workers of St. Petersburg march to palace to ask tsar for help Unarmed workers shot down by government troops Peasants seized landlords' property, killed landlords Workers formed soviets (worker councils) in cities, factories Workers tended towards non-Marxist socialists; Marxists marginalized Sought to achieve ends without full scale revolution A Fizzled Revolution Tsar forced to accept elected legislature, the Duma Many parties elected with conflicting interests Unable, unwilling to cooperate Rendered ineffective by tsar, bureaucracy Stolypin Reforms Reforms allowed peasants to buy land; end redemptive payments Small group of very successful peasant landowners began to arise Rights for workers gradually ignored, cancelled Army failed to support revolution For the Future Nicholas II was weak, ill-advised, unwilling to end autocracy Russian Marxists emboldened, reorganized, radicalized Peasants, workers radicalized, unlikely to cooperate in future

38. A MULTINATIONAL EMPIRE Austria 1750 � 1814 A collection of states ruled by the Hapsburg family who were also the Holy Roman Emperors The Holy Roman Empire was neither holy, nor Roman nor an empire No common government, few common institutions (save Catholicism) Austria in 1815 � 1860 One of the victors against Napoleon: extremely conservative and reactionary The weakest, most threatened of Europe�s great powers Prime Minister Metternich dominated German Confederation, Italy Used force, coercion to prevent German, Italian nationalism Opposed nationalism, liberalism, democracy 1848 Revolution nearly destroyed state Russia intervened to suppress revolutions Austria then intervened in Germany, Italy to suppress revolutions Prussia fights to isolate Austria, unify Germany w/o Austria Austria in 1866 � 1870 Defeated in 1858 by French-Sardinian Alliance; 1866 by Prussia Driven from German Confederation, Italy Sees nationalism, German unification triumph under rival Prussia Sees Italy united under Sardinia; Papal states erased 1867 Ausgleich with Hungarians Hungarians formed resistive group; 2nd largest nationality in empire Agree to rule jointly with Hungarians; name changed to Austria-Hungary Czechs, Slovaks, Slovenians, Serbo-Croats, Poles, Ruthenians, Rumanians disenfranchised Magyars insist upon assimilation of its peoples Austria 1870 � 1914 Industrialization occurs in Czech area but remains largely agrarian Many citizens immigrate due to hardships, repressive rule of Magyars State unable to reform as it is blocked by aristocrats, Germans, Magyars State threatened by Pan-Slavic nationalism Russia became a permanent enemy in Balkans along with Serbia Forms an alliance with Germany to protect state Opposes any form of national independence for Balkan Slavs, own Slavs

39. MAP OF CONFUSION

40. NATIONALISM & IMPERIALISM Nationalism heavily involved in imperialism Source of national pride, strength to acquire colonies Non-Westerners soon learned to be nationalist Many studied in Western schools, learned western knowledge to get ahead Many defined their sense of nation as response to imperialism India Two types of state-structures in India Princely States: States ruled by Indian princes, assisted by British officials British possessions: States ruled directly by British Ram Mohan Roy (1772-1833), "father of modern India" Sought an Indian society based on European science and traditional Hinduism Used press to mobilize educated Hindus and advance reform The Indian National Congress, founded 1885 Educated Indians met, with British approval, to discuss public affairs Congress aired grievances about colonial rule, sought Indian self-rule 1906, All-India Muslim League Formed to advance interests of Indian Muslims Limited reform, 1909; Wealthy Indians could elect representatives to local councils Indian nationalism A powerful movement, achieved independence in 1947 India served as a model for anti-colonial campaigns in other lands Other Examples Sepoy Rebellion in India (1856) Meiji Restoration in Japan 1898 Boxer Rebellion in China Late 1800s Mahdist Rebellion and State in the Sudan 1898 Boer War in South Africa 1905 Iranian, 1910 Mexican, 1911 Chinese Revolutions

41. NATIONALIST RIVALRIES Nationalism spread by the French Revolution and Napoleonic Wars Self-determination: each ethnic group had a right to a sovereign state Concept was ignored or opposed by dynastic powers Considerable nationalistic tensions in Ottoman, Hapsburg, and Russian empires Slavic nationalism in the Balkans Stressed kinship of all Slavic peoples Pan-Slavism was a movement to unite all Slavs under the Russian tsar Ottoman empire shrank as first Greece, then others, gained independence Serbs of Austria-Hungary sought unification with independent Serbia Russians promoted Pan-Slavism in Austria-Hungarian empire Germany backed Austria-Hungary to fight ethnic nationalism The naval race between Germany and Britain increased tensions Germany's rapid industrialization threatened British economic predominance Both states built huge iron battleships, called dreadnoughts Colonial disputes of the late nineteenth century Germany unified in 1871; came late to the colonial race German resentment and antagonism toward both France and Britain France and Germany nearly fought over Morocco in 1905 Balkan wars (1912-13) further strained European diplomatic relations Public opinion supported national rivalries Attitudes of aggressive patriotism among European citizens Leaders under pressure to be aggressive, to take risks

42. IRANIAN REVOLUTION OF 1905-1911 Causes Intellectuals feel that to save Iran they would have to limit Shah�s power Encroachment by Russians, British on Iranian territory upset Iranians Initiated by the Majilis or Iranian Parliament 1905: A year of demonstrations and strikes Parliamentarians tended to be educated, merchants, clerics, young Introduced the constitutional concept of government People were sovereign and their representatives were delegated to enact the laws Old Shah abdicates, new shah accepts constitutional limitations 1906 Constitutionalists failed to protect victory against domestic, international threats Trade Russian influence for British control Took at face value Mohammed Ali Shah's pledges to respect constitution 1907-1908 UK, Russia prepare to divide Iran into �spheres of influence� Mohammed Ali Shah used opportunity to overthrow constitution Shah attempts to kill constitutionalists, forced to abdicate, flees Spheres of influence Anglo-Russian convention signed on August 31, 1907 Divided Iran into three zones Russia took Northern part British zone paralleled the Persian Gulf, Indian empire Neutral zone across center of country open to both interests 1910 Russia invades Helps old Shah reestablish his rule in Iran

43. MEXICAN REVOLUTION 1911- 1920 The Revolution (1910-1920) Middle class joins peasants, workers overthrow Diaz Class Factions 1910-1914: all rebels vs. Diaz and Huerta 1914-20: Carranza, Obregon vs. Zapata, Villa Regional Revolutions: North, South, Yucatan Course of the Revolution Liberal Middle Class Leaders Francisco Madero rules at first Seeks middle class constitutional democracy Opposes land reform; landless peasants attack large landowners Peasant armies win pitched battles against government troops General Huerta, army side with landowners, kills Madero Venustiano Carranza Organizes coalition with Villa, Zapata, Obregon US troops sent by Wilson support Carranza, Huerta resigns Peasant, Common Rebels Pancho Villa led northern rebels, especially landless peasants Emiliano Zapata initiates land reform in the Southern areas he controls US Intervenes in 1914 (Veracruz) and 1916 (Chasing Pancho Villa) Civil War 1914 � 1917: Constitutionalists (Carranza) win, reestablish control Women�s Roles: Soldaderas (camp followers), Soldiers, Political Activists New Constitution of 1917 brought sweeping reform Advanced nationalist, radical views Universal male suffrage (hostile to women) Power, property of Church restricted Free, secular, obligatory primary education Returned lands seized illegally; curbed foreign ownership 8 hour work day, Minimum wage, Strikes legal

44. CHINESE REVOLUTION Reform Fails Chinese elites unwilling, unable to reform Boxer Rebellion shows weakness of state, humiliating to Chinese Chinese leaders Leaders educated abroad, especially Japan, US Sun Yat-sen Founds United League in Tokyo using Chinese foreign funds Wins support of many military officers, foreign exiles Sun�s Three Principles of the People Nationalism: Overthrow Manchus, end foreign hegemony Democracy: Popularly elected republican form of government People's Livelihood: help people, regulate means of production, land 1911 Revolution broke out in Hubei Local army rebellion followed by many armies Joined by United League members 2/3 of provinces join rebels 1912 Last Emperor abdicates Sun Yat-sen inaugurated as first president General Yuanshikai in Beijing takes control Sun resigns as president to unify the state Results Revolution did not establish a stable republic China fell into warlords' rule Through unequal treaties, foreign states still controlled economy of China Growth of Chinese nationalism, radicalism