Human Body Systems

1. Human Body Systems By Nick Nagy

2. Digestive System

3. Digestive System Functions (food passes through) • Mouth: Beginning of digestion where food is chewed and where saliva is secreted and mixed in with food to begin to break it down. • Pharynx: Tube where food and air pass. Small flap called epiglottis closes off and separates food from air to prevent choking. • Esophagus: Tube which is lined with muscles that contract, which pushes down food into stomach. • Stomach: Where food is broken down by enzymes. • Small Intestines: Made up of the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum. The food is mixed with different liquids such as bile, chyme, and pancreatic juices. These all break down the food even further. • Large Intestines: It is made up of the cecum, ascending colon, transverse colon, descending colon, and sigmoid colon. The basic function is to absorb water from the food and store it as feces unit it can be excreted. • Rectum: Pushes feces through anus. • Anus: Opening for feces to exit the body

4. Digestive System (accessory organs) • Salivary Glands: Excrete saliva to mix with food to begin digestion process. • Liver: Produces bile to be mixed with food to break it down. • Pancreas: Secretes pancreatic juices which help with the absorption of nutrients. • Sphincters: Constricts openings and allows food into next segment when needed.

5. Digestive System • Digestion of large food molecules are essential because most of the food we eat is made up of many different compounds from other organisms that won’t benefit us. They have to be broken down and reassembled so we can benefit from them. • We need enzymes in digestion because they break down the food for us to absorb the nutrients. • Physical digestion is when the food actually passes through all the different segments of the digestive system. Chemical digestion is when our bodies digests the nutrients of the food. • Carbohydrate digestion occurs in the mouth with salivary glands with amylase as the enzyme. Protein digestion takes place in the stomach with pepsinogen as the enzyme. Lipid digestion takes place in the small intestine with lipase as the enzyme.

6. Digestive System Disorders • Yellow Fever: Acute viral hemorrhagic disease. Transmitted by the mosquito. • Symptoms: mild infection with fever, headache, chills, back pain, loss of appetite, nausea and vomiting • Effects around 200,000 people a year. 90% of cases occur in Africa • None • Cholera: Small intestine infection caused by Vibrio cholerae • Symptoms: diahrrea and vomitting • Effects around 3-5 million people a year • Treatment: Stay hydrated and ingest plenty of • electrolytes. There are anitbiotics too.

7. Circulatory System

8. Circulatory System: Blood Vessels • Main function is to circulate blood and other nutrients throughout the body • Arteries carry blood away from the heart to body parts. They normally have oxygenated blood in them • Veins take the deoxygenated blood back to the heart. They have smooth muscles in them to pump the blood back to the heart. • Capillaries are the smallest of blood vessels. Their function is to enable exchange of water, carbon dioxide, and oxygen between blood cells and other cells.

9. Circulatory System: Blood Flow Through Heart • Starts off by entering right atrium through superior and inferior vena cava • Flows through tricuspid valve to right ventricle • Goes through pulmonary valve to pulmonary artery • From pulmonary artery it goes to lungs so it can be oxygenated • Returns to the heart through pulmonary veins • Enters left atrium • Goes through mitral valve to the left ventricle • Flows to aorta via aortic valve • Goes to all parts of body from the aorta

10. Circulatory System: The Blood • Plasma is the liquid of the blood that holds all the cells and components in it. It is mostly all water. • Erythrocytes (red blood cells) carry oxygen to all of the body’s tissues. They have a crescent shape because they do not have a nucleus which allows to carry more oxygen. • Leukocytes (white blood cells) are the body’s defense mechanism against infections. They are responsible for killing off bacteria and viruses. • Platelets are cell fragments that are responsible for clotting the blood when blood vessels are broken.

11. Circulatory System Open Closed Vertebrates, and a few invertebrates, have a closed circulatory system. Closed circulatory systems have the blood closed at all times within vessels of different size and wall thickness. Blood is pumped by a heart through vessels, and does not normally fill body cavities. • Open circulatory system is common to molluscs and arthropods. • Open circulatory systems pump blood into a hemocoel with the blood diffusing back to the circulatory system between cells. • Blood is pumped by a heart into the body cavities, where tissues are surrounded by the blood.

12. Circulatory Systems: Different Types

13. Circulatory System: Disorders • Atherosclerosis • Accumulation of cholesterol in the walls of an artery causes the walls to harden. • Asymptomatic • Around 4.6 million people die a year in America • Many treatments such as bypass surgery, or just having a healthy diet. • Coronary Heart Disease • Failure of coronary circulation to supply blood to cardiac muscles • Chest pains are a sign of it • Almost half a million people die of it in America each year • Regular exercise and a healthy diet are ways to prevent

14. Respiratory System

15. Respiratory System: Alveoli • Contain some collagen and elastic fibers • Elastic fibers allow the alveoli to stretch as they are filled with air when breathing in, then spring back during breathing out in order to get rid of the carbon dioxide-rich air • A pair of human lungs contain about 700 million alveoli, which adds up to about 70m² of surface area

16. Respiratory System: Path of Oxygen • Oxygen begins being inhaled from the air into the body • Follows path of respiratory system going from mouth to trachea • From trachea, goes through either bronchi into lungs • Once in lungs, goes into small sacs, alveoli • Alveoli are lined with capillaries which exchange deoxygenated blood with oxygen to make oxygenated blood • Oxygen diffuses past alveoli membrane into blood which is picked up by hemoglobin in blood cells

17. Respiratory System: Disorders • Bronchitis • Mucous membranes in the bronchi become inflamed • Coughing uncontrollably, coughing up mucous • About 10 million people a year get bronchitis • Treated with different types of medicines • Emphysema • Causes shortness of breath because tissue that is supposed to support lung’s shape is destroyed (usually caused by smoking) • Shortness of breath • About 20 million Americans are diagnosed each year • Irreversible condition, but stop smoking, inhalers, and good body position all help

18. Excretory System

19. Excretory System: Types of Nitrogenous Waste • Urea • Excreted by mammals • Slightly toxic • Uses little amount of water to excrete • Uric Acid • Usually excreted by reptiles and birds • Non-toxic • Uses very little water to excrete, birds and reptiles usually need to conserve as much water as possible • Ammonia • Usually excreted by fish • Highly Toxic • Needs a large quantity of water to excrete, hence why fish excrete it

20. Excretory System: Nephron Process • Waste travels through a filtration complex first • Reabsorption occurs with help of diffusion and active transportation through renal tubule • Secretion occurs by the process of active transport within the renal tubule • All waste is then excreted

21. Excretory System: Disorders • Urolithiasis (kidney stone) • Very high level of calcium concentration causes it to crystallize to make calcium oxalate • Intense pain in the kidney area is a symptom • About 3 million a year get them • Drink plenty of water and fluids to pass the stone • Nephritis • Inflammation of the nephrons • Presence of albumen in urine, suppression of urine, are signs • About 40,000 people die a year in America from it • Steroids and antibiotics are used to treat it

22. Muscular System

23. Muscular System • Makes the body move, circulates blood, and helps with posture • Muscle Contraction: • Calcium is released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum which bonds to troponin • Myosin heads bind to the passive actin filaments at the myosin binding sites. • Once a strong binding happens, myosin rotates at the myosin-actin interface , extending the myosin. • Shortening occurs when the extensible region pulls the filaments across each other. Myosin remains attached to the actin. • The binding of ATP allows myosin to release from the actin. ATP hydrolysis occurs.

24. Muscular System: Disorders • Rhabdomyolysis • Condition in which damaged skeletal muscle is destroyed rapidly • Tenderness and swelling of affected muscles • About 26,000 Americans develop it each year • Treat shock and maintain kidney funtcion • Muscular Dystrophy • Weakens muscular system and decreases locomotion • Poor balance, droopy eye lids, inability to walk, muscle spasms are a few of the signs • 1 in about 3500 boys are born with it • No known cures, physical therapy helps slow down symptoms

25. Immune System • Protects organism from diseases • Thymus, lymph nodes, spleen, heart, and bones all play a part in the immune system • When pathogens enter the body, the the white blood cells first decides if the pathogen is part of the body or not. To recognize it, the white blood cells see if the pathogen’s antigens match up with the body’s antigens. If not, then it is labeled as non self and is attached to antibodies to be destroyed.

26. Innate immunity • Dominant system of host defense • Does not help with long lasting immunity against pathogens • Immediate response to pathogens and damaged cells • Non-specific • Inflammation is part of this • Acquired Immunity • Remembers pathogens by their antigen • Antigen specific and requires non-self identification • Maintained by memory cells • Lymphocytes are part of this

27. Immune System • Active Immunity • Occurs when the person is exposed to a live pathogen • Can occur through a vaccine, then the body produces the cells necessary to destroy pathogen • Passive Immunity • Short term immunity to pathogens by injection of antibodies • Antibodies from the maternal can be passed into the bloodstream creating passive immunity as well

28. Immune System • Humoral Immunity • Regulated by B lymphocytes • Cell-mediated Immunity • Regulated by T lymphocytes

29. Immune System • B Lymphocyte • Binds to site specific to pathogen • Memory Cells • Help with acquired immunity • Effective against bacteria • T Lymphocytes • Effective against viruses • Need other cells to identify as non-self

30. Immune System • Antibiotics are effective against bacteria because they interfere with the metabolic processes such as formation of a cell wall or protein synthesis • Antibiotics are ineffective against viruses because viruses do not have metabolic processes because they are not living so antibiotics have no effect

31. Immune System • HIV/AIDS • Autoimmune disease which attacks T lymphocytes causing immune system to be ineffective • Fevers, sweating, weight loss, chills, weakness • 33.4 million people world wide have are HIV positive • Antiviral therapy is a treatment option as it’s not curable • Vitiligo • Depigmentation of skin when melanocytes are killed • Depigment of skin on the extremities, skin lesions • Less than 1% worldwide have Vitiligo • UVB Phototherapy is a treatment option

32. Skeletal System • Provides structure for the human body • Bones are connected by ligaments, and tendons connect muscles to bones which all assist in movement of the body • A hydrostatic skeleton is mainly seen in invertebrates such as earthworms, in which the body cavity is filled with fluid which supports body organs • An exoskeleton is mainly seen in invertebrates such as a crab or insect, where a hard substance like chitin is found on the outside of the body in place of skin, which protects the body’s organs. • An endoskeleton is what is found in vertebrates such as humans, in which the system is found on the inside of the body, which provides structure and support to the body.

33. Skeletal System

34. Skeletal Systems: Disorders • Fibrous Dysplasia • Bone thinning disease • Swelling of affected bone • 9,000 – 18,000 people will get it sometime in their lifetime • Chemotherapy • Osteoporosis • Bones become porous resulting in easier fractures • Bones fracture easily and stooped back are symptoms • About 1.5 million Americans are diagnosed each year • Calcium and Vitamin D supplements are helpful

35. Sensory System • Mechanoreceptor – respond to pressure or distortion. Located usually in skin cells • Thermoreceptors – respond to changes in temperature. Found in skin, urinary bladder, and cornea. • Chemoreceptors – responds to contact with certain chemicals. Can be found in the nose, heart, and tongue. • Photoreceptors – absorbs photons and converts them into signals that stimulate biological processes. Found in the eye’s retina. • Pain receptors – sends signals to brain when potentially harmful stimuli occur

36. Sensory System

37. Sensory System • Rhodopsin – biological pigment that is responsible for the formation of photoreceptors

38. Reproductive System • System of organs, chemicals, and hormones that aid in reproduction • Sexual reproduction is when a male and a female of a species perform sexual intercourse to reproduce • Asexual reproduction is when an organism has both male and female parts that interact with each other to make an organism. • Examples of asexual reproducing organisms: hydras, sponges, starfish

39. Reproductive System • Spermatogenesis: The process when sperm cells divide by meiosis in a male

40. Reproductive System • Oogenesis: creation of an egg cell in a female • The cell divides unevenly into a large cell and three smaller polar bodies because the large cell needs as much nutrients as possible to survive which the polar bodies provide

41. Reproductive System • Estrous Cycle • Occurs in most female placental mammals • If no fertilization occurs, endometrium is reabsorbed • Sexually active during ovulation • Menstrual cycle • Occurs in apes and humans • Divided into 3 phases: follicular, ovulation, and luteal phases • If no fertilization occurs, endometrium is shed • Can be sexually active anytime

42. Reproductive System • Cleavage – division of cells in embryonic development • Gastrulation – phase in embryonic development that in which the blastula transforms into a gastrula • Organogenesis – three layers (ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm) of the organism in development begin to develop internal organs

43. Reproductive System • Morula – first stage of embryonic development. Structure begins to hollow out • Blastula – hole in middle becomes bigger and walls become thinner • Gastrula – a single layered blastula forms a three layered structure

44. Reproductive System • Ectoderm • Outer most layer of gastrula • Forms nervous system and all external features such as epidermis, mouth, anus, nostrils and others • Mesoderm • Middle layer of gastrula • Forms muscular system and gonads • Endoderm • Inner most layer of gastrula • Forms gastrointestinal tract, respiratory tract, endocrine system, auditory and urinary systems

45. Reproductive System • Gonorrhea • Caused by bacteria that grow easily in warm, moist areas • Burning when urinating, discharges from genitalia are symptoms • 700,000 cases in U.S. • Antibiotics can successfully cure gonorrhea • Syphilis • Sexually transmitted disease that is caused by infectious bacteria • Symptoms include sores on infected area, lesions, rashes • 36,000 cases a year • Treatment can include shots of penicillin or antibiotics

46. Endocrine System • System of glands and organs that secretes hormones into blood to help body function • Homeostasis – condition in which a system keeps a stable environment • The many hormones that the endocrine system secretes help the body maintain homeostasis • Negative Feedback – reduce the output of a hormone back to normal levels • Blood Pressure – as the blood pressure increases the brain would send messages to the heart to slow down and the blood vessels to increase in size lowering the blood pressure back to normal

47. Endocrine System

48. Endocrine System • Adrenal Gland – secretes epinephrine which increases heart rate, constricts blood vessels, and dilates air passages in response to fight or flight

49. Endocrine System • Type I Diabetes • Autoimmune disease in which white blood cells destroy insulin producing cells in pancreas • Frequent urination, weight loss, hunger, thirst are all symptoms • About 50,000 cases in America • Insulin therapy and pancreas transplant are treatment options • Type II Diabetes • Caused by high blood glucose levels and insulin isn’t as effective of removing glucose from blood. Can be caused by obesity • Frequent urination, thirst, and hunger are signs • 285 million cases • No hope for cure but can manage it by increases exercise and healthy diet

50. Sources • digestive.niddk.nih.gov/ddiseases/pubs/yrdd/ • www.youtube.com/watch?v=Z7xKYNz9AS0 • www.enchantedlearning.com/subjects/anatomy/digestive/ • http://www.ama-assn.org/ama/pub/physician-resources/patient-education-materials/atlas-of-human-body/digestive-system.page • hes.ucfsd.org/gclaypo/circulatorysys.html • biology.clc.uc.edu/courses/bio105/circulat.htm • http://www.fi.edu/learn/heart/systems/circulation.html • http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/P/Pulmonary.html • biology.clc.uc.edu/courses/bio105/respirat.htm • http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/health-topics/topics/hlw/ • http://science.howstuffworks.com/environmental/life/human-biology/immune-system.htm