Motivation and Behavior

1. Motivation and Behavior Chapter 7

2. Motivation • An inferred process within a person or animal that initiates, activates, or maintains their movement either toward a goal or away from an unpleasant situation.

3. Sociobiology: A Glance into Evolution • Natural selection: an evolutionary mechanism that occurs when some individuals of a population are better able to adapt to their environment and, subsequently, produce more offspring.  Nature, in effect, selects which members of a population are fit to survive long enough to reproduce.  Differential reproductive success among individuals is the key.  Those who produce more offspring have a greater influence on the gene frequencies of the next generation.  This mechanism of evolutionary change was first described by Darwin (1809-1882).

4. Spencer (1954) The struggle for survival motivates people to compete for scarce resources; Those who are fit for the struggle will succeed and those who aren’t fail Baldwin (1991) Survival needs can be individual and collective e.g., collective survival is found in African people Survival of the Fittest: Individualism & Collectivism

5. Schubert (1991) • Sociobiology does not account for the religious, social, cultural factors influence diversity • E.g., high income and birth rates are negatively correlated & People experiencing economic threats tend to have more children YET wealthy Arab nations still have more children

6. Instincts • An inborn pattern of behavior often responsive to specific stimuli behavior that is specific to a certain species and appears in the same form in all members of the species • Although theorists e.g., Bekheterev, LeBon, & Tarde maintain people have social instincts of imitation, social reflexes etc. This is not supported by research

7. Social Science & Society • Weber (1922) saw two societies • Preindustrial (traditional)- people’s behavior is viewed as inseparable from society’s rules and customs • Industrial (nontraditional) or capitalistic societies where rationality is the pillar of motivation • Marx (1867) saw economic inequality as activating human needs BUT social equality does not prevent aggression & inequality does not create aggression

8. Drive and Arousal • Drive- internal aroused condition that directs an organism to satisfy some physiological need • Need- a motivated state caused by physiological or psychological deprivation • Biological i.e., are universal & directed toward self-preservation • Social i.e., direct people toward establishing & maintaining relationships • The goal of behavior is to attain balance/ stability

9. Arousal Theories • Suggest people seek to maintain optimal levels of arousal by actively changing their exposure to arousing stimuli (Yerkes, 1911)

10. Psychoanalysis: The Unconscious • Freud (1938) • Unconscious refers to the level of consciousness with thoughts feelings, and memories that influence us w/o our awareness • Two instincts • Life (eros) • Thanatos (death) • Personality • Id • Superego • Ego * Psychoanalytic theory lacks empirical validity, but has some value toward cultural symbols and rituals

11. Humanistic Theories • Focus on human dignity, individual choice, & self-worth • Maslow (1970) studied healthy individuals • Needs arranged in a hierarchy • Low-level needs must be meet before trying to satisfy higher-level needs • Esteem: Status, respect, power • Self-actualization: Fulfill one’s potential

12. Accurate perception of reality Appreciation & open to experience Spontaneity & simplicity Philosophical sense of humor Need for privacy Periodic mystical (peak) experiences Democratic leadership traits Deep interpersonal relationships Autonomy & independence Creativeness Problem-centered orientation Resistance to enculturation Acceptance of self, others, & nature Self-Actualizing Characteristics

13. Challenges to Maslow’s Theory • The relative strengths of the needs are culture-specific • Nevis (1983) in China, need for belonging is greater than physiological needs • Petrovsky (1978) claimed the existence of collectivism in Russia

14. Learning & Motivation:Cognitive Theories • Cognitive theories maintain that people are aware of their thought patterns and can control their motivation & behavior • Intrinsic motivation- engages people in activity for its own sake; Deci (1972) suggested that people do this to obtain cognitive stimulation & to gain mastery • Extrinsic motivation- comes from the external environment e.g.,

15. Food Preference • Heaviness is not always caused by overeating & weight loss is not always caused by exercising and eating healthy. • Set Point: The genetically influenced weight range for an individual, maintained by biological mechanisms that regulate food intake, fat reserves, and metabolism. • Cultural norms & traditions regulate our eating habits

16. Weight and Health: Biology Versus Culture • Bulimia: An eating disorder characterized by episodes of excessive eating (binges) followed by forced vomiting or use of laxatives (purging). • Anorexia Nervosa: An eating disorder characterized by fear of being fat, a distorted body image, radically reduced consumption of food, and emaciation. Allows avoidance of role of wife & mother associated with roundness * Other cultures may pressure women to overeat e.g., Mauritania

17. Achievement Motivation • Need for achievement • McClelland (1958) thought achievement motivation i.e., strive for success, is learned throughout life • Different social norms for motivation e.g., Czechoslovakia, American, Chinese, Mexican show different types of success

18. Furham (1994) showed a strong relationship between individual achievement motivation & economic growth; Ogbu (1986) noted a difference in motivation for black students where success was not necessarily defined by school • Zheng & Stimpson (1990) found difference between entrepreneurs and nonentrepreneurs in innovation, achievement orientation, self-esteem, and personal control

19. Individualist-success motivation--- affects attitude toward personal goals Western cultures Task orientation i.e., one’s ability to learn and grow Collectivist-success motivation--- affects attitude toward connecting with others Eastern cultures Ego orientation i.e., one’s relationship to others (Chinese who are bicultural do both

20. Goals and Aspirations • Goals improve motivation when: • The goal is specific • The goal is challenging but achievable • The goal is framed in terms of getting what is wanted rather than avoiding what is not wanted

21. Types of Goals • Performance Goals: Goals framed in terms of performing well in front of others, being judged favorably, and avoiding criticism. • Mastery (Learning) Goals: Goals framed in terms of increasing one’s competence and skills.

22. Mastery and Motivation • Children praised for being smart tend to lose the pleasure of learning and focus on how well they are doing.

23. Motivational Conflicts • Approach-Approach Conflict: • Equally attracted to two activities or goals. • Avoidance-Avoidance Conflict: • Choosing between the “lesser of the evils.” • Approach-Avoidance Conflict: • One activity or goal has both positive and negative elements. • Multiple Approach-Avoidance Conflicts: • Several choices, each with advantages and disadvantages.

24. Aggressive Motivation • Biological perspective • Learning perspective: Impacted by cultural views and cultural support • Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis (Dollard et. al., 1939; Berkowitz, 1962)– aggression is dominant unlearned response to frustration from poverty, broken families, migration, urbanization, unemployment, & discrimination

25. Factors involved in Aggression • Social competence (Asher et. al., 1992) • Gender (boys are 4x more likely to be violent than girls) • Ethnicity (difference in arrest rates) • Culture i.e., infanticide, domestic violence, & honor killings; difference in acceptance of violence from culture to culture

26. Culture & Sexuality • Sexual motivation– impacted by human physiology & culture • Sex culture refers to requirements, beliefs, symbols, & norms • Sexual abuse, sexual values • traditionalism & nontraditionalists may be similar or different in sexual practices

27. The Culture of Desire • Sexual Scripts: Sets of implicit rules that specify proper sexual behavior for a person in a given situation, varying with the person’s age, culture, and gender.

28. The Psychology of Desire • Many Motives for Sex • Enhancement • Intimacy • Coping • Self-Affirmation • Partner Approval • Peer Approval

29. Attitudes Toward Chastity

30. The Riddle of Sexual Orientation • Psychological Versus Biological Explanations • Homosexuality and Politics

31. Sexual Practices • Kissing • What is attractive • Armpits & ankles • Different sexual practices • Innis Beag, Sambia, Mangaia • Sexual activity e.g., white males (14-21) are more sexually active than Latinos, but less than blacks • Sexual challenges for the genders • Erectile dysfunction vs lack of interest

32. Sternberg’s Triangle Theory of Love • Varieties of love occur because of differing combinations of three elements • Examples: • Liking: Intimacy alone • Companionate love: Intimacy + Commitment • Romantic love: Intimacy + Passion Commitment Intimacy Passion

33. Lee’s Six Styles of Love • Eros – Romantic, passionate love • Ludus – Game-playing love • Storge – Affectionate, friendly love • Pragma – Logical, pragmatic love • Mania – Possessive, dependent, “crazy” love • Agape – Unselfish love