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Cognition. Study of how the mind works. Study of basic mental functions of the mind. Includes a variety of mental process: perception, pattern recognition, language, etc. Cognition Equals. Cognitive Psychology.
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Cognition • Study of how the mind works. Study of basic mental functions of the mind. • Includes a variety of mental process: perception, pattern recognition, language, etc.
Cognitive Psychology • Theoretical orientation emphasizing mental structures and processes and breaks them down into component structures and processes • How sensory information is acquired, stored, transformed and used. • Mental activity or acquisition, storage, transformation, and use of knowledge
Neisser’s Defintion of Cognitive Psychology “Cognitive Psychology refers to all processes by which the sensory input is transformed, reduced elaborated, stored, recovered, and used.”
Levels of Cognition Perception Attention Pattern Recognition Memory Organization of Knowledge Language Reasoning Problem Solving Decision Making
Codes • System of signals used to represent something -- e.g. code for the alphabet • Neural Code: e.g. the word ‘hat’ encoded as a pattern of light on the retina • Cognitive Code: the word ‘hat’ --> phonemes (language sounds), letters, meaning
Level of Description • Mental Level • Cognitive Level • Neural Level
Question • Answer this question as quickly as you can: • How many hands did Aristotle have?
Wilhelm Wundt • “ Conscious processes and immediate experience” • Introspection or “self observation” • Rigorous Methods
Titchener • Structuralism • Training of observers • Structuralism • Imageless thought controversy
Herman Ebbinghaus • Study higher mental processes using scientific method • Process of association formation • Non-sense syllables • Savings Method
Nonsense Syllables DAX GIK TEB KOV SUV HET
Ebbinghaus’ Method • Learn list to 2 perfect recitations (# trials) • Set aside (varied delay) • Relearn (# trials) • Measurement of Savings
William James - Functionalism • Interested in the functions of consciousness • Infer mental mechanisms or processes from the way organisms behave in different situations. • Functions of Memory • Primary Memory • Secondary Memory
Behaviorism • John B. Watson (1924) • Reaction to Introspection • Emphasis on observable, quantifiable behavior • No unobservables, no internal mental states, no images, ideas, or thoughts
Behaviorism • Psychology = Scientific study of behavior • Humans as passive reactors to external stimuli • “Tabular Rasa” - Environmental determinants of behavior • Rats in mazes, puzzle boxes, etc.
Behaviorism - Positive Contributions • Insistence of precise & careful definition of concepts • Operational Construct • e.g. performance = # trials necessary to complete a maze with no errors • Experimental Control
Gestalt Psychology • Laws of organization • Law of proximity • Law of similarity • Insight problem solving
Law of Similarity O O O O X X X X O O O O X X X X
Law of Proximity O O O O X X X X O O O O X X X X
Frederick C. Bartlett • Remembering: An Experimental and Social Study (1932) • Meaningful materials -- e.g. stories • Human memory constructive process • Original material interpreted and transformed
The Cognitive Revolution • Return to mentalistic ideas (1940’s and 50’s) • MIT – Sept. 11, 1956 • Neisser’s book Cognitive Psychology (1967) • Information processing perspective • Diverse Influences/ Causes
Dissatisfaction with Behaviorism • Challenges to “tabular rasa” • Innate structure or knowledge • Complex human behavior not explainable in terms of stimulus-response relations alone
World War II • Practical Problems • Problems of perception, judgement, thinking, and decision-making • Operating technical equipment • Performance over Learning • Human Factors
Verbal Learning • Flourishing of Ebbinghaus tradition • Different types of memory, memory organization, models • Active nature of learner--what is brought to learning • Formation of new associations --> Use of pre-existing associations. • Emphasis on Memory over learning
Bousfield (1953) apple bicycle shirt chair banana car socks desk peach truck couch orange train hat desk desk couch chair peach apple hat shirt dress … Etc. Words presented in this order: But recalled In this order
Verbal Learning … • Existing memory associations lead to reorganization of words during recall • Mental Processes: rehearsal, storage, organization, retrieval • Acceptance of objective methods & procedures • But increased commitment to inferred processes -- e.g. encoding, storage, retrieval
Linguistics • Rejection of behaviorist notions of language • Emphasis on mental processes underlying language learning • Novelty of utterances • 2 Major Claims • Language knowledge innate • Grammatical rules/system
Evidence • Same age of acquisition • Similar stages and length of time to acquire • Limited # of Grammars • Novel utterances • Evidence for rule use: Irregular past tense verbs
Evidence for Rule Use: Irregular past tense formation • Initially • ‘go’ --> ‘went’ • ‘eat’ --> ‘ate’ • Later (after acquiring regular past tense rule) • ‘go’ --> ‘goed’ • ‘eat’ --> ‘eated’
Telephone example “UD has improved the appearance of the university over the last few years.”
Communications Theory • Information processing idea • Similarity between communication devices and people • 1st approximation analogy for psychology to describe mental processes • Channel, information processing filters, limited capacity, serial vs. parallel processing.
Information Theory InformationSource Transmitter Channel Receiver Destination
Computers & Computer Science • Numerous contributions • Analogy of computers & humans • Both process information: Take in information, transform, manipulate, store, & output information (or some type of product--e.g. behavior) • Humans & computers as symbol manipulators
Many Contributions • Borrowing of concepts & characteristics of computers to describe human system: sensory store, short-term store, long-term store • Limited capacity--immediate memory & attention
Additional Contributions • Computer programs/processes analagous to mental processes • Simulation modeling • AI • Computer as tool • Modeling • Stimulus Presentation
Current Issues Related to Cognitive Psychology • Ecological Validity • Cognitive Science • Cognitive Neuroscience • Artificial Intelligence • Parallel Distributed Processing Approach