Prehistory & the Rise of Civilization

2. Prehistory & the Rise of Civilization

3. FC.1 BIOLOGICAL, CULTURAL & TECHNOLOGICAL EVOLUTION IN HISTORY CULTURAL EVOLUTION People adapt behavior to envir. Much faster than biol. evol. TECHNOLOGICAL EVOLUTION People adapt envir. to their needs  progressively the fastest evol. “RUBBER BAND” THEORY If 1 part of a culture changes it affects the rest of the culture Mobile H & G soc’s Little or no surplus Little conflict Fairly egalitarian society Settled agr. soc’s More surplus  More wars & soc. stratification  Lower status for women Pre-indust. civ’s Much more wealth Much more war & soc. stratif. Women lose status Indus. soc’s w/rapidly accelerating tech Much more destr. warfare, but higher status for women Biol. & cult. evol. can’t keep up with spiraling tech. growth Much more wealth, but also major problems: Society & culture can’t change as quickly Environment can’t support unltd. growth Tech. of destruction grows even faster than tech. of production Total war is obsolete BIOLOGICAL EVOLUTION Where nature very slowly adapts us to changing environment Humans distinguished by 5 major biological features: Binocular & color vision Upright posture frees hands Hands with opposable thumbs Large well organized brain Speech share ideas New tech’s Surpluses Wars & conflict

4. FC.2 A POSSIBLE SCENARIO FOR HUMAN EVOLUTION Shrews adapt to 3-D life in the trees  Evolve into prosimians (e.g., lemurs)  Monkeys, all of them developing: Binocular vision to deal w/3-D environment Better hunting & gathering Better Nutrition Improved tools Better nourished brain Speech develops with better brain Better sharing of knowledge Stone tools for hunting and defense against wild animals Develop the first technology Fire for warmth, defense vs. animals, & cooking Safer & more nutritious Ice Ages Harsh conditions Must adapt more quickly Ice Ages Harsh conditions Must adapt more quickly Early art (e.g, cave ptgs) Evidence of more modern behavior: Care for sick and injured Religion (e.g. burials) Apes evolve & practice tree swinging  helps develop: Hotter & drier climate Much of rain forest dries out Develop big jaws & molars & lose their canines so they can chew grasses & grains they find in the savannah Upright posture  Can see farther hands to grasp at higher speeds Vision & brain to absorb high speed data Some apes move out into savannah (dry grasslands) to find food Hotter & drier climate Much of rain forest dries out Better brain to deal w/3-D environment Better hands for hanging onto tree branches Evolution of the family (FC.3) Discovery of agriculture (FC.4)

5. Emotional satisfaction coming from children More permanent pair bonding as men get attached to other aspects of family life: Scavenging for meat & gathering berries, grains, etc.by men & women Successful scavenging Taste for meat  Males actively hunt while females watch children & gather plants for food Specialized roles as men who hunt & women gather food & watch children “Premature” births of babies with smaller heads to ease pain of birth Helpless at birth Dependent on mothers for longer time Mothers need help of the fathers to support the children Year-round mating replaces yearly estrus cycle in some females Complementary roles of men & women Much more need for coop. & sharing Those females attract males all the time Males share food with them & their children More multi-tasking brains suited to keeping track of several things at once General, not absolute, tendencies in & differences b/w men & women Stalking & waiting for game require: Long periods of staying quiet Intensely focusing on one thing Women must gather while also: Looking out for predators Keeping track of several children Discourages verbal socializing that could scare off game Coop. & verbal socializing Strong bonds b/w women Brains adapted to concentrate intensely on 1 problem & block out other stimuli Added companionship & security of family life FC.3 A POSSIBLE SCENARIO FOR THE EVOLUTION OF THE FAMILY & GENDER ROLES Evolution of larger brain & head (FC.2) Hominids forced into the savannah (FC.2)

6. FC.4 THE BIRTH OF AGRICULTURE & ITS EFFECTS Eventually settle down to full-time agric. with important results: Heavier reliance on agr. Agr develops first in Fertile Crescent because: Hot dry summers Big seeds for fast growth No woody stems Big nutritious grains & easy harvest It has many self pollinating cereals Don’t breed w/other plants Don’t lose valued recessive traits Permanent villages w/stable grain supplies which allow: Time to watch seeds grow discovery of agric. (c.8000 B.C.E.) Women don’t carry kids so far  Less need to control pop. growth Population growth Depletes H&G resources Young children can eat grains Women wean children earlier Shorter gaps b/w pregnancies Domestic crops & intensive agric. can spread rapidly from one center Eurasia‘s E-W axis Plants share same climate, & seasonal variations of sunlight Dev. new agr. techniques(2-field system, crop rotation) popul.  Less coop. & sharing private prop.Soc. classes & more conflict Rising pop Need more food, but won’t abandon easier H&G lifestyle  Casual agriculture mixed with hunting & gathering WHY AGR. & CIV. 1ST DEVELOP IN EURASIA (ESP.NEAR EAST) WHY AGR. & CIV. 1ST DEVELOP IN EURASIA (ESP.NEAR EAST) Warmer, wetter climate (c,10,000 BCE) Wild grains spread in mid East Need for more food Cities & civiliz. can develop & spread rapidly from 1 center (FC.6) Better hunting & gathering tech., esp sickles & baskets (FC.2) Rise of hydraulic civ. in Mesopotamia (FC.6)

7. FC.5 ANIMAL DOMESTICATION AND ITS EFFECTS Better hunting & gathering  More settled lifestyle (FC.2) Abiltiy to keep & domesticate animals that are: Herbivourous & fast growing  Need less food Live in herds w/strict soc. hierarchy that humans can take over Tame & willing to breed in captivity Most animals suitable for domestication were found exclusively in Eurasia & esp. the Fertile Crescent Sheep & goats (c.8000 B.C.E.) that are easily tamed  Meat & milk for food Can digest cellulose Make hilly land useful Wool for clothing Pigs (c.7000 B.C.E.) that scavenge : Reduce waste Need less supervision Cheap to keep Cows (c.6500 B.C.E.) - hard to tame but can: Digest cellulose Pull plows Farm more land Give meat, milk & hides Horses (c.3000 B.C.E.) when tamed & bred up in size  New source of energy Faster comm’s Bigger emp’s More mobile armies Chronic clashes throughout history b/w nomads grazing their herds in dry grasslands & settled farmers in well watered areas (FC.9) Herd animals’ diseases often infect humans Eurasian civ’s adapt Advantage vs. cultures not previously exposed (FC.16)

8. Priest organizes complex irrigation projects & is paid with offerings of grain Wars b/w cities over water rights & land Crime need strong govt. Population growth Migration into hot dry river valley of Tigris & Euphrates Need a strong war leader Surplus grain Need more food Expand Irrigation Villages all along the rivers start irrigation Population rises Common culture promoted by easy trade & transport by water Large pop’s of civ’s in hot climates of Mid East & India gradually adapt to infectious diseases Artisans & craftsmen come to town to build temple or support it with goods & services Priests use surplus grain to build & expand temple Cities emerge all along the valley which keep expanding farmland to support their rising popul’s Greater concentrations of wealth & population Rising gap b/w rich & poor Wars become chronic FC.6 THE RISE OF HYDRAULIC CIVILIZATIONS & THEIR IMPACT Birth of agriculture in uplands of Mesopotamia (FC.4) Advantage over nomadic pop’s who haven’t come into contact w/these diseases (FC.9) Permanent kings who provide strong govt. & build history’s first empires (FC.10)

9. Worship son of God & mortal woman who dies & is resurrected Fascist mass rallies in 1920s & 30s try to create highly controlled festive experience for passive audience Boring Ltd. temporary success H & G people learn to move together Image of 1 big animal to drive off predators  Practice moving together Trancelike & spiritual experience of all being together as one Attempts to control collective dancing by formalizing it into state relig. monopolized by ruling class Nationalist military parades w/beat to recreate festive feeling while controlling people as only passive audience Grk’s formalize Dionysian rites into seasonal event, seeing it necessary to give in to irrational side occasionally so they can preserve sane rationality the rest of the time Involve wine (Chr. Communion & Christ’s 1st miracle) Practice festive dancing, though neither has a sexual component Romans try to suppress Dionysian & other religions that use festive dancing St. Paul tries to control dancing, etc. to make Chr. seem more legit. to Romans  Efforts to control dancing increase with growth of Church hierarchy Med. Church in 1200s bans dancing in Church  Pushed out into streets Carnival  Loses more spiritual nature & becomes more of a parody of ruling classes who feel increasingly threatened Prot. & Cath Ref’s suppress carnival & nearly extinguish it, esp. in Prot N. Growing sense of self distinct from society Sense of isolation  Rising rates of depression starting in 1600s Romans see Chr. as like Dionysian rites because both: FC.6A FESTIVE DANCING AND ITS IMPORTANCE IN HISTORY Early hunting & gathering soc’s (FC.2) Early civ’s w/ hierarchical soc. structure (FC.6) Early civ’s w/ hierarchical soc. structure (FC.6) Dionysian rites that seem to invert soc. order (FC.21) Dionysian rites that seem to invert soc. order (FC.21) Romans’ conservative & hierarchical soc. (FC.26) Romans’ conservative & hierarchical soc. (FC.26) Rise of Christianity (FC.26) Rise of Christianity (FC.26) Rise of Med. Papacy (FC.66) Rise of Med. Papacy (FC.66) Rising soc tensions in 1500s (FC.84) Strict Calvinist ideas on sin (FC.85B) Protestant Ref. (FC.84) Capitalist work ethic (FC.75) French Rev. (FC.105) Napoleonic wars (FC.106) Hitler & Nazis (FC.134) Mussolini (FC.133)

10. FC.6B THE EVOLUTION OF EARLY WARFARE TO c.500 B.C.E. Big iron-equipped armies EARLY IRON AGE (c.1000-500 B.C.E) Warfare more widespread & destructive. Turmoil & destr. of many cities in region Moderate population density High pop. density Larger chiefdoms & states w/surplus wealth Losers in wars are enslaved or taxed Small hunting & gathering bands  Losers in wars can move away. Larger tribes, but no surplus for tribute or use for slaves Losers in wars are killed, though women may be spared. Low population density Low population density High pop. density Indo-Eur. peoples armed w/composite bow & horse & chariot disrupt older civ’s: Drought (c.2000 BCE) STAGES OF PRE-CIVILIZED WARFARE Warfare becomes more destructive, widespread, & chronic, but also profitable for winners Cavalry replacing chariots HIGH BRONZE AGE (1700-1200 B.C.E) Raiders & mercenaries use light infantry vs. chariots Weaken &/or overthrow civ’s in Near East EARLY CIV. WARFARE (c.3000-1700 B.C.E.) 3rd Dyn. of Ur (c.2100-2000 B.C.E.) Akkadian Emp. (c.2350-2250 B.C.E.) BiggerEmpires (Assyrian Chaldaean Persians helped by: Drought (c.2000 BCE) HIGH BRONZE AGE (1700-1200 B.C.E) Cities’ ltd. resources Most Sumerian wars indecisive sieges until new siege tech’s Can storm cities History’s 1st emp’s: EARLY IRON AGE (c.1000-500 B.C.E) Expense of bronze & horses Autocratic Civ’s ruled w/small elite chariot armies: Moderate population density Domestic. of horse (FC5) Domestic. of horse (FC5) Mesopotamia under Babylon (FC.10) Indus River Civ. (FC.12) Mid. Kgd Egypt (FC.11A) Kassites & Hittites (FC.10) New Kgd Egypt (FC.11B) Mycenaean Greeks (FC.17) Iron tech. (FC.8) Iron tech. (FC.8) Alphabet Better records (FC.7)

11. FC.7 THE BIRTH OF WRITING AND ITS IMPACT Expanded trade More & new types of tokens Pictographic writing (c.3500 B.C.E.): Symbols stand for what they look like (e.g., picture of sun = “sun”)  Good for keeping inventories but little else Ideographic writing (c.3000 B.C.E.): Pictographs can stand for something more abstract (e.g., picture of son = “day”, “light”, or “heat” Rebus writing (c.2100 B.C.E.): Using phonetic values suggested by pictographs to build new unrelated words (e.g., picture of sun = “son”)  Useful but still needed ~700 symbols (1 for each syllable) Narrow, highly specialized class of scribes rest of society heavily depends on Put tokens in sealed clay envelopes  If caravan drivers steal both goods & tokens, merchants in next city will see broken seal If caravan drivers steal goods, but not tokens, merchants in next city will see difference New forms of wealth Clay tokens to keep track of goods Sometimes caravan drivers can’t remember how many goods & tokens they have Impressions of tokens on outside of envelopes  No need for tokens Phonetic alphabet (c.1000 B.C.E.): one symbol for each sound we make  Much simpler Many more literate people  Lowers scribes’ status Expands uses of writing to literature & history Better record keeping Much bigger states & trade routes STAGES OF WRITING STAGES OF WRITING Merchants rely on caravan drivers who sometimes steal goods & tokens The birth of agriculture (FC.4) The rise of cities (FC.6)

12. Trinket tech. using bits of copper found while looking for flint Bronze too expensive for most people Iron Age starts (c.1000 B.C.E.) Copper too soft to be very useful Trade routes expand to find tin Search for & find safer alloy of copper & tin Find natural & harder, but poisonous alloy of copper & arsenic More effective forest cutting, mining & plowing Iron much more plentiful than bronze ever was Civilization spreads along tin routes Invent pottery Kiln for hotter fires & copper/oxide glaze Tin supply cut by nomadic upheavals (c.1200 B.C.E.) Copper beads smelt out See copper’s usefulness Need replacement for bronze Bronze Age (c.3000-1000 B.C.E.) Highly stratified soc’s in the Near East FC.8 THE RISE OF METALLURGY & ITS IMPACT Better hunting & gathering More settled lifestyle(FC.2) More democratic soc’s, such as Greece, since the masses are armed w/iron (FC.19) New forms of wealth, but also deforestation, soil erosion, and more wars (FC.6B)

13. Semi-arid grasslands Nomads: • Meat diet Bigger & stronger • More mobile Hard to catch • Size & speed Psych edge Sometimes peaceful co-existence, but often clashes with each side having its own advantages: Nomadic hit-and-run raids Civ. usually wins until weakened by natural or human factors (e.g., poor leadership) Civ. revives & expands Clashes w/new nomadic tribes Civilization starts to revive for several reasons: Nomads marry civ.. women who raise the children Nomads get attached to civilized comforts Civ. falls & continues to decline b/c nomads can’t or won’t maintain it Further weakened civilization Peaceful trade & service in civilized armies Nomads learn about & envy civ. wealth Peaceful trade & service in civilized armies Nomads learn their military techniques Nomads learn to appreciate & how to maintain civ. Well watered farmlands Civilization: • Agr. Bigger popul. & army • More org. & disciplined army • Usually better equip. & tech. Nomadic herders Settled farmers FC.9 FARMERS, NOMADS, AND THE SPREAD OF CIVILIZATION Birth of agric. (FC.4) Domestic. of animals (FC.5) Civ’s have adapted to infectious diseases while nomads haven’t (FC.6) Mesopotamian civilization spreads across Middle East & to Greece (FC.10) Grk civ. spreads to Rome & Macedon (FC.19) Chinese civ. spreads across E & SE Asia (FC.33) Indian civ. spreads across S & SE Asia (FC.33) Spread of Roman civiliz. to W. Europe (FC.33) Rome falls to. Ger. tribes who gradually revive civiliz.(FC.39)

14. The Ancient Near East

15. FC.10 THE SWEEP OF MESOPOTAMIA’S HISTORY (c.3000-539 B.C.E). Flat terrain Open to invasions Few resources Resourceful people Hot dry river valley Irrig. Organiz. Civiliz. (FC.6) Sumerian city-states emerge as history’s 1st civilization (c.3000 B.C.E.): Cycle of conflicts b/w nomads & civ’s(FC.9) Wars b/w cities over land & water rights (FC.6) Akkad (2350-2250 B.C.E.) which rules through: Tear down rebel walls Hostages More obedent Gov’rs & garrisons 3rd Dynasty of Ur (c.2100-2000B.C.E.) ruling through: 1st known law code Temples & irrig. Jobs Messenger system Babylon (c.1750-1600) rules through: Promote 1 language Temples & irrig. Jobs Promote 1 law code Assyria (c.911-612) conquers empire using: Mounted cavalry Siege weapons Iron weapons Chaldean Emp. (612-539) rules Fertile Crescent but suffers econ. problems: Relig. dispute disrupts emp. S. ports silt up Cut trade Rival Medes cut trade to NE Raise taxes Peasants over-work & over-irrigate soil to pay taxes Rising water table  Salt ruins soil Tax revenues fall Semi-nomadic Persians take Babylon Establish & rule history’s largest empire to that time(FC.15)

16. Prov. gov’s & priests get out of control Until times of regular floods: c.3000-2250 B.C.E. c.1950-1840 B.C.E. c.1770-1170 B.C.E. Agriculture & prosperity rise Pharaoh’s status & tax revenues rise Prov. gov’s & priests under tighter control Pharaoh’s power increases Hot dry river valley of the Nile Agriculture & econ. decline Pharaoh’s status & tax rev’s decline Periods of anarchy: 1st Intermed. (c.2190-2052 B.C.E.) 2nd Intermed.(c.1778-1570 B.C.E.) 3rd Intermed.(c.1085-525 B.C.E.) Pharaoh’s power declines Prosperous strong periods: Old Kingdom (c.2850-2150 B.C.E.) Middle Kingdom (2052-1778 B.C.E.) New Kingdom (1570-1085 B.C.E.) Desert & sea surround Egypt Peaceful history Need to irrigate Can build a strong unified kingdom Need org. & govt. Hydraulic civiliz. Until times of irregular floods: Low floods (c.2250-1950 B.C.E.) High floods (1840-1770 B.C.E.) Low floods (1170-1100 B.C.E.) FC.11 THE CYCLES OF THE NILE & EGYPTIAN HISTORY Egypt comes under Persian rule in 525 B.C.(FC.15)

17. Huge expense of pyramids, esp. when others besides pharaoh can build them too Middle Kingdom (2052-1778 B.C.E.) characterized by: First Intermediate period (c.2190-2052 B.C.E.), a period of chaos, econ. decline, civil wars between nomes & nomadic raids until regular floods return (c.1950-1840 B.C.E.) Priests & nobles separated from pharaoh’s influence by long stretches of Nile Cultural golden age, esp. in literature Expansion south into Nubia for gold & NE into Palestine & Syria Building projects such as burial labyrinth w/3500 chambers Strongly centralized govt. to run irrigation & protect peace Old Kingdom (2850-2150 B.C.E.) characterized by: Clashes between city-states (nomes) over land  Egypt coalesces into two kingdoms: Upper (S) & Lower(N) Egypt  Final unification of Egypt under Menes (c.3000 B.C.E.) Prosperity continues until high floods hit (1840-1770 B.C.E.) Pharaoh seen as a god-king Massive pyramid projects FC.11A EGYPT’S OLD AND MIDDLE KINGDOMS (c.3000-1778 B.C.E.) Water from Nile Rise of hydraulic civilization in Egypt (FC.11) Hot & dry climate Low floods (c.2250-1950 B.C.E.) Cycle of bad floods & decline (FC. 11) Cycle of good floods & prosperity (FC. 11) Turmoil of 2nd Intermediate period (c.1778-1570 B.C.E.) (FC.11B)

18. Egypt beset by mounting problems: Final decline of Egypt as it comes under rule of Libyans, Nubians, Assyrians, and finally Persian Empire (525 B.C.E.) Influx of foreign influences, including religious Priests of Amon get more powerful & independent Egypt’s enemies, esp. Assyria, armed with iron Growing power of priests of Amon who own 30% of Egypt Religious & political turmoil Weakens hold on Egypt’s empire vs. Hittites in N.  Egypt’s power briefly restored by Seti I (1303-1290) & Ramses II (1290-23) after years of warfare Pharaoh Akhenaton (1370-53 B.C.E.) unsuccessfully tries to break power of priests of Amon by shifting religious focus to the sun god, Aton Econ. strain from wars  “Sea peoples” take Syria & Palestine and almost conquer Egypt  More econ. strain Strain of building expensive tombs Palestine & Syria ruled indirectly through vassal kings Nubia in the south for its gold Ruled with fortresses & garrisons New Kingdom (1570-1085 B.C.E.) characterized by foreign expansion to protect Egypt from future invasions: Lower Egypt conquered by nomadic Hyksos armed with horse-drawn chariots & composite bows Hyksos driven out of Egypt (c.1570 B.C.E.) FC.11B EGYPT’S NEW KINGDOM & FINAL DECLINE (1778-525 B.C.E.) Turmoil of 2nd Intermediate period (c.1778-1570 B.C.E.) (FC.11A) Regular floods (c.1770-1170 B.C.E.) (FC.11) Regular floods (c.1770-1170 B.C.E.) (FC.11) While Hyksos adopt Egyptian culture & get soft, Egyptians adopt composite bows & chariots from Hyksos (FC.9) Low floods (c.1170-1100 B.C.E.) (FC.11) Low floods (c.1170-1100 B.C.E.) (FC.11)

19. PATTERN OF INDIAN HISTORY Several possible reasons for decline: Not clear if there was 1 cent. gov. or indep. cities Warlike Aryans from NW w/horse & chariot take over (c.1500 B.C.E.) Monsoons shifted  Left Indus Civ. arid Extremely complex & varied culture that at once absorbs new peoples yet keeps them distinct Slows conquests by & absorption of new people Less faith in this life More concern w/religion Hot humid climate Tropical diseases India a huge sub-continent cut into distinct regions India cut off by huge mts., but w/some passes Too much irrig.  Salinized soil Indian gems, spices and cotton attract new people & ideas Sewers to drain water & wastes Position on Arabian Sea & Indian Ocean attracts new people & ideas Standard weights & measures for trade Trade with & cultural influence from Mesopot. Urban planning in rectangular grids PATTERN OF INDIAN HISTORY Deforestation Drier & hotter climate Indus River changed course Indus R. Civ. w/highly org. centers at Mohenjo Daro & Harappa characterized by: FC12 THE INDUS RIVER CIVILIZATION & PATTERN OF INDIAN HISTORY Pattern of rise of hydraulic civilizations (FC.6) India very difficult to conquer Aryans (FC.50) Greeks (FC.51) Muslims (FC.52) British (FC.123)

20. Phoenicians take to the sea for both trade & colonies Phoenicians become history’s first great ship-builders, sailors & explorers Flourishing trade but also subject to invasions Independent city-states unable to resist big empires Phoenicians are resourceful traders & craftsmen Refine & spread phonetic alphabet (w/o vowels) Vastly expands literacy Copy & sell other civilizations’ artifacts  Hard to tell them from the originals Explore new regions & found colonies: Square sail turned by ropes (braces) at each end of yard arm for tacking into wind Sleek warships with several levels of oars & a ram to sink enemy ships Hull stabilized by keel, ribs, thwarts, & deck & sealed w/ tar (vs leaking) & lead sheaths (vs. sea worms) Phoenicians combine Minoan & Egyptian designs & techniques to refine ship-building & navigation Phoenicians draw upon two older ship-building traditions: FC.13 THE PHOENICIANS AND THE ART OF SEAFARING Few resources except timber & snails (for purple dye Phoenicia broken up by rocky hilly coastline Phoenicia caught b/w Egypt & Mesopotamian empires Minoan ship design using keel for ship’s backbone Egyptian ships use ribs & thwarts to strengthen hull Explore Medit., N to Britain (for tin), & sail around Africa Found colonies across Medit. Sea, esp. Carthage in N. Afr. Centuries long struggle vs. Greek colonists over Sicily as key to control of W. Medit. Both sides eventually overtaken by Rome which destroys Carthage in 146 B.C.E. after three long bitter wars (FC.29)

21. FC.14 THE ISRAELITES AND THE BIRTH OF MONOTHEISM Hebrews live near Mesopotamia as seen in shared stories (e.g., Great Flood) until one group under Abraham (c.1800 B.C.E.) migrate to Canaan (Palestine) Abraham’s personal covenant to worship only his god Abraham’s people gain greater understanding and concept of God through various stages of their history Abraham’s people gain greater understanding and concept of God through various stages of their history Hebrews migrate to Egypt (c.1600 B.C.E.)  They’re enslaved when the Hyksos are driven out (c.1570 B.C.E.) Hebrews’ Exodus (escape) (c.1200 B.C.E.) Receive 10 Commandments Moral responsibility for our actions Idea of Monotheism Basis for much of Western law Hebrews (AKA Israelites) conquer & divide Palestine b/w 12 tribes 2 problems: Israelites absorb civ., but are drawn to pagan gods Philistines, armed w/iron, beat isolated tribes Unify Isr’s under monarchy of Saul Peaks under David (c.1000-961) & Solomon (961-922) Permanent capital at Jerusalem Profess. army & bureaucracy Heavy taxes & forced labor  People mad Israel splits into Kgd. of Israel in N. & Kgd. of Judah in S. Assyrians conquer Isr. (722 B.C.E.) “10 Lost Tribes” of Isr. Biblical prophets warn Jews to repent or face God’s wrath Babylon conquers Judah (586 B.C.E.), but Jews keep identity Belief that Jews’ god is a universal god who unleashes Jews’ enemies when they stray from God’s law Jews, sustained by their faith, keep their identity through 1900 years of persecution & exile Basis for Christianity(FC.37) Basis for Islam(FC.46)

22. FC.15 THE PERSIAN EMPIRE (c.550-330 B.C.E.) Closely related Indo-European speaking Persians & Aryans split (c.2000 B.C.E.), the Persians going west and the Aryans SE into India Hurts kings & economy Persian king, Cyrus the Great, frees Persians from Medes, takes Babylon (539 B.C.E) and establishes history’s greatest empire up to that time (FC.10) Cambyses, Cyrus’ successor, further extends Persian Empire by conquering Egypt in 525 B.C.E. (F.C.11B) Problem of how to rule such a huge empire Darius I“The Great” (522-486 B.C.E.) helps establish stable & peaceful empire through tolerant rule & several other measures: Ensures news and communications by an empire-wide system of roads & relay riders Local garrisons, officials, & royal spies (“King’s Ears”) answer directly to king to help prevent revolts Creates 20 large & powerful provinces (satrapies) whose governors could resist invasions, but also rebel vs. king Still requires strong ruler to keep peace & order Weak kings succeed Xerxes I after 464 B.C.E. Kings raise taxes while hoarding gold & silver Less $ in circulation Civil wars, revolts (esp. in Egypt), & powerful independent satraps Persia falls to Macedonian king, Alexander the Great in 330 B.C.E.(FC.25) Persians revive under Sassanid Dynasty (c.220-650 C.E.) which preserves Mesopotamian culture and passes it on through Arab Muslims (F.C.46)

23. FC.16 THE IMPACT OF DISEASE ON EARLY CIVILIZATIONS FLOWCHART IN DEVELOPMENT

24. The Greeks

25. Minoans prosper until volcanic eruption on Thera north of Crete (c.1500 B.C.E.) Very wealthy society from trade across the Near East Rich peaceful soc. characterized by: Higher status for women in absence of warrior class Sophis. archit., palace complex @ Knossos), & drainage system Elaborately decorated pottery Rise of Minoan Civ. on Crete (c.1900 BCE) with: Strong trade & navy  Spread infl. over Aegean No fortif’s needed since Crete was so isolated Volcanic ash kills crops on Crete Indep. palace-states, but centralized like Egypt & Mesop. Shock waves destr. buildings on Crete Conquest of Minoans by Mycenaeans characterized by: Warlike soc. as seen in their fortif’s, armor, & pottery art Grain shortages in Greece Wars b/w palace states Hurts trade even more Weakens the Mycenaeans Soc. flourished until upheavals, which the Myc’s may have joined (e.g., Trojan War), disrupted Mycenaean trade Tidal wave wrecks Minoan navy & trade FC.17 BRONZE AGE GREECE: THE MINOANS & MYCENAEANS Egyptian infl. in archit. (columns) & art (profiles) (FC.11) Influence of Mesopotamia via Syria & Cycladic Islands (FC.10) Myc’s fall  Greek Dark Age (FC.18)

26. Numerous defensive sites centered around defensible hills (acropolises) More settled conditions by 800 B.C.E. Common language which Grks saw as separating them from non-Greek speaking babblers (“barbarians”) Illiteracy as seen by lack of written records Defensive centers evolve into small indep. city-states (poleis)  both good & bad points: Various groups & dialects of Greeks, the two most important being: Ionians who either resisted Dorians or fled to islands & Asia Minor ( Ionia) Dark Age (c.1100-750 BCE) characterized by: Movement of peoples Chaos Dorians, who overthrew Mycenaeans & often treated their subjects like slaves Despite their differences, there were also unifying factors: Chronic warfare b/w poleis their downfall Inspired Greeks to work hard for their polis Common religion & sacred games (e.g., Olympics)  Common ties for all Greeks Leagues which bound groups of cities by political, religious, & kinship ties Revival of trade & influence from East: • Phoen. alphabet Grks add vowels • Egyptian architecture (columns) & art Mixed agr. of grains, vines, & orchards developed on marginal lands by indep. farmers who band together vs. nobles Poverty as seen in the crude architecture FC.18 DARK AGE GREECE & THE RISE OF THE POLIS (c.1100-750 B.C.E.) Fall of Mycenaean Civ. (FC.17) Greece is broken up by mountains Greece is broken up by mountains Greece is hilly & dry with poor soil Greece by the sea with few resources Rise of Greek Democ. (FC.19) Basis for Greek Civiliz. (FC.23)

27. Reliance on rising MC of small indep. farmers who can afford shield & armor Phalanx spreads as each polis needs it to survive vs other poleis Phalanx warfare (c.650 B.C.E.) characterized by: Equality & involvement in politics Ltd warfare so farmer-hoplites can tend farms In more agricultural poleis, middle class of hoplite-farmers are vital to phalanx  They are vital to the polis Pop. until they can’t or won’t give more  Become oppressive Overthrown Status of farmer-hoplites in phalanx Supports their control of polis Coinage, a portable form of wealth More trade & shift from land to $ econ. In many commercial poleis, MC hoplites help tyrants seize power & provide jobs, written laws & land to stay popular Short head-on clashes to protect farmers’ land & get them back to work More resources & less pop. pressure Mid. class who can buy arms & armor Heavily armored Grk. phalanxes Can found & defend more colonies Grks found colonies (c.750-550 B.C.E.) around Black Sea, N. Aegean, S. Italy & Sicily Dom. by merchants, craftsmen, & small landholders Famine & overcrowding  Peasants borrow from nobles  Peasants lose farms when they can’t repay the loans Unstable poleis with few rich & many poor  Unrest Limited dem’s characterized by: CONCEPT OF WARFARE AS DECISIVE HEAD-ON CLASHES SPREADS TO ROME W. CIV’S CONCEPT OF WAR TODAY FC.19 THE RISE OF GREEK DEMOCRACY (c.1100-750 B.C.E.) Rise of Greek city-states (poleis) (FC.18) Poor soil Drought Grk civ. spreads to Rome (FC.26) Grk civ. spreads to Macedon (FC.24) More settled conditions  Revival of crafts & trade (FC.18) Rise of indep. farmers practicing mixed agric. (FC.18) Shame culture & social nature of Grk. soc. Check on extreme behavior

28. FC.20 THE RISE OF SPARTA TO 500 B.C.E. Sparta forced to become a military state in constant readiness vs. helot revolts Sparta originally like other Greek city-states, even being a leader in poetry & dance Rather than colonizing like other Greeks, Sparta conquers neighboring Messenia in 2 long & bitter wars Sparta, outnumbered 10:1 by its subject Messenians, turns them into serfs (Helots) Spartans had the best army in Greece but little originality, freedom or self discipline Sickly babies unlikely to grow into strong soldiers or mothers are exposed to die Age 18-20: Serve in Krypteia (secr. police) to spy on & terrorize Helots Age 20-50: Full-time soldiers Women run farms & helots  Unusually high status for women Boy’s & men’s lives ruled by the military: Govt. a conserv. oligarchy of 30 elders & 5 ephors Fear of Helot revolt  Conserv. for. policy Girls get tough training @ home  healthy moms for future Spartans Age 7-18: Boys taken to live in barracks & given tough & brutal training which gets worse at age 12 Famine & over-crowding (FC.19) Famine & over-crowding (FC.19) Despite their authoritarian society, the Spartans would play an essential role in defending Greek liberties in the Persian Wars (FC.23A)

29. FC.21 THE RISE OF ATHENS TO 500 B.C.E. War with Persia whose expansion threatens Athens’ grain supply POLITICAL DEVELOPMENTS More internal peace in Athens Rising tensions in Athens even after Draco’s law code (621 B.C.E.) tries to end many abuses by nobles Solon made archon (594 B.CE..) to make reforms & avert revolution Factional fighting goes on Peisistratus becomes tyrant (545-527 B.C.E.) Solon’s polit. reforms: Wealth, not birth, the criteria for office Pop. assem. got a bit more power All citizens could serve on juries Athens takes Sigeum in the Hellespont to guard grain coming from the Black Sea Anger grows as tyrants’ rule becomes stricter Provides land & jobs for the poor Overthrow Peisistratus’ son & est. ltd. democr. favoring mid. class (508 B.C.E.) More profits as they sell olive oil, pottery & crafts Invest $ in more vineyards, olive orchards & pottery Money left over after buying grain More repression as pop’s anger grows ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENTS Sell olive oil, wine (later), pottery, & other crafts Money to buy grain Abolishes debts to help poor Bans grain exports Grow olives for oil Solon’s econ. reforms: Athenians have more at stake when Persian threat appears Attracts artisans to Athens Dorian failure to conquer Attica Few internal conflicts Early unif. & Athen. citizenship for men throughout Attica Tensions in Poleis from rising mid. class & overpopulation (FC.19) Tensions in Poleis from rising mid. class & overpopulation (FC.19) Athenians find major silver deposit at Laurium Athens builds navy & leads Greeks to victory vs. Persia  Athen. Emp. & cultural golden age (FC.23)

30. FC.22 THE BIRTH OF WESTERN PHILOSOPHY & SCIENCE. Greeks the 1st people to give non-myth. explanations of the universe Milesian philosophers debate what is the primary element at the root of change: Anaximander: a vague element he calls the “boundless Anaximenes: Air or vapor since rain is pressed from air Thales: Water since it exists in all 3 states of matter Sophists in Athens (400s) shift focus from nat’l world to morals & ethics, but claim there is no absolute right or wrong Aristotle (384-322 ): We have innate power to reason  But no innate ideas exist in our minds which don’t first exist in the sensory world  We must rely on our senses to find the truth Plato (428-347): We have innate power to reason  Our imperfect world flows from & is based on higher world of unchanging & eternal ideas  We need abstract thinking, esp. math, to find truth Heracleitus: The universe consists of opposites  Opposites (e.g., day & night) interact  Change is constant We can trust our senses Parmenides: Matter can’t come from nothing  Matter is eternal & unchangeable  Change is an illusion We can’t trust our senses Theories of unchangeable elements which combine w/each other  change: Empedocles: 4 elements (earth, water, air, & fire)  Combine in fixed ratios Democritus: Unlimited variety of tiny indivisible atoms which combine Socrates in Athens (400s) says true insight comes from within  We can figure out absolute right from wrong Debate on the which is more trustworthy, our senses or reason Debate on the nature of change & if we can trust our senses Influence of Babylonian math & science (FC.10) Influence of Egyptian math & science (FC.11) Growing prosperity & freedom of expression in Grk. poleis by 600 B.C.E. (FC.19) Essential part of the scientific method that would emerge in W. Eur. in 1600s (FC.97)

31. Greeks destroy Persian navy at Mycale (479)  Persians cleared out of Ionia Greeks defeat Persian fleet in narrows of Salamis  Xerxes leaves his army in Greece (480 B.C.E.) Ionian Greeks rebel vs. Persia & ask Athens’ help Athens helps Ionians who burn Persian city Sardis All Greece except Peloponnesus abandoned to Persia Persians burn Athens in revenge for Sardis 7000 Greeks led by 300 Spartans hold Thermopylae until pass is betrayed  Greek fleet forced to abandon Artemesium despite heavy Persian losses Persians crush Ionians at naval battle of Lade & destroy Miletus (494 B.C.E.)  Persian king, Darius I, also wants revenge vs. Athenians 1st Persian expedition vs. Greece destroyed in a storm 2nd Persian expedition Athenians use shock of the hoplite phalanx charge to defeat much larger, but lightly armed, Persian army at Marathon (490 B.C.E) Strategy of holding narrow pass at Thermopylae & nearby straits of Artemesium to neutralize Persian numbers Greeks crush Persian army at Plataea (479)  Persians cleared out of Greece FC.23A. THE PERSIAN WARS (c.500-478 B.C.E.) Athens relies on grain from Black Sea (FC.21) Persian expansion into Black Sea area (FC.15) Egypt rebels vs. Persia Darius I dies (486 B.C.E.) 3rd Persian exped. takes 10 yrs. for new Persian king, Xerxes to prepare Time for Greeks to prepare: Many, but not all Greeks, band together in an alliance Athens uses silver from mines of Laurium to build navy Storm in N. Aegean wrecks 400 Pers. ships Storm off Euboea wrecks 200 Pers. ships Set stage for Athenian Empire & golden age of Classical Greek civilization (FC.23)

32. Athens tries to expand across Greece & vs. Persia in Aegean  Athens is defeated Peace w/Persia (448) & Sparta (445) Athens also controls its subjects through: Settling Athen.colonies (cleruchies) on subject lands Guard vs. rev. Peace w/Persia & Sparta after failure of more Ath. expansion  Democracy & culture flourish under Pericles’ leadership Tragic & comic drama in form of myth Guidance & perspective on contemporary problems Classical sculpt.  More realistic & natural poses Grk architecture reaches height with Parthenon Most members, being poor, pay Athens $ to maintain navy Greeks form Delian League, led by Athens w/ its large navy to guard Greeks from future Persian invasions, free Ionian Grks, & drives Persians from the Aegean Sea EVOLUTION OF DELIAN LEAGUE INTO ATHENIAN EMPIRE Athens uses navy to keep members from leaving league Red figure pottery art more available to common people Freed. of inquiry new ideas, but also questions old values Moving the League treasury to Athens for “safe keeping” The empire needs the navy More influence for poor Broader based Ath. democ. Poor need empire to pay for navy Navy uses poor Ath’s as rowers Making subjects use Athen. courts Jobs for Athen. jurors Subjects must use only Athenian coins Pro-Athen. propaganda FC.23 THE DELIAN LEAGUE & ATHENIAN EMPIRE (c.500-431 B.C.E.) Greeks, esp. Athens, defeat Persian invasions (FC.23A) EVOLUTION OF IMPERIAL DEMOCRACY Peace & prosperity continue until war breaks out w/Sparta (FC.24A) Basis for West. Civ. carried on by Rome & re-emerging in Renaissance (FC.76)

33. FC.24A. THE PELOPONNESIAN WAR (431-404 B.C.E.) Sparta dominates Pelop. League (FC.20) Athens dominates Delian League (FC.23) Any war b/w members of each league Drags in all Greeks When Athens backs Corcyra vs. Corinth Sparta backs Corinth War involving whole Greek world Sparta, w/strong army, invades Attica, devastating its agr. & hoping to beat Ath’s in land battle Ath’s, w/strong navy, raid Peloponnesus & avoid Sp. army by crowding inside Long Walls ARCHIDAMIAN WAR (431-421 BCE) Ath. strategy works until epidemic kills ~1/3 Ath’s, incl. Pericles Athenians bitter over losses War becomes increasingly vicious: Ath’s brutally suppress rev’s by Mytilene & Skione Spartans totally destroy Plataea after 2-year siege Peace of Nicias (421 BCE) after 10 yrs of costly but inconclusive warfare Ambitious politician, Alcibiades, convinces Ath’s to invade Sicily Alcibiades runs to Sparta when enemies charge him with sacrilege Ath. army has initial success until it besieges Syracuse Alcibiades convinces Sp’s to help Syracuse vs. Athens SICILIAN PHASE (415-413 BCE) Entire Athenian expedition gets trapped & destroyed at Syracuse Athenians face seemingly overwhelming problems: AEGEAN PHASE (413-404) AEGEAN PHASE (413-404) Ath. navy & $ are gone Much of its emp. revolts Alcibiades gets Persia to give Sp. $ for a fleet in return for promise of Ionia Sp’s occupy fortress in Attica  Ath’s can’t farm Ath’s rebuild navy & bring Alcibiades back as gen’l Beat Sp’s, restore emp. & even refuse offer of peace Sp’s beat Ath’s despite Alcib’s orders not to fight while he is away raising funds Alcib., fearing Athen. mob, flees to Persia  Sp. gen’l, Lysander destroys last Athen. fleet at Aegospotami Athens falls to Sparta (404 BCE), but fighting continues among Greeks Decline & fall of the Polis(FC.24)

34. FC.24 THE DECLINE & FALL OF THE GREEK POLIS (431-338 B.C.E.) Spartan system full-time professional army (FC.20) Ath. Emp. Full-time navy & mercenaries (FC.23) Other poleis need merc’s to compete Need $ Raise taxes on hoplite farmers Ruins many hoplite farmers Become merc’s  Fewer hoplites for polis Grk’s divided b/w Ath. & Spartan leagues (FC.23) Grk’s divided b/w Ath. & Spartan leagues (FC.23) War b/w members of opposing leagues Most Grks dragged in Greeks gang up vs. biggest power War b/w members of opposing leagues Most Grks dragged in New polis emerges as big power Sparta destroys Ath. Emp.. in Pelopon. War (431-404) Thebes leads other Greeks vs. Sparta Athens & Sparta join forces to stop Theban dominance Greek. colonies Grk civ. spreads to Macedon (FC.19) Greek. colonies Grk civ. spreads to Macedon (FC.19) Rise of Philip II (359-336 B.C.E.) seizes Amphipolis gold mines of Amphipolis to build up his power with: Roads to unify Macedon Prof. army using latest milit. techniques & tactics Bribes to Grk. politicians Philip advances into Greece using combin. of diplomacy & war Dilemma esp. for Athens: If Athens fightsPhilip  Its econ. collapseDefeat If Athens doesn’t fight Philip will conquer Greece Philip conquers Greece, ending age of the polis & paving the way for his son, Alexander the Great (FC.25)

35. FC.25 ALEXANDER THE GREAT & THE HELLENISTIC AGE (336-31 B.C.E.) Antigonid Macedon which also tried to control Greece Constant wars vs Aetolian & Achaean Leagues of Grk. cities & occasionally vs Ptolemies & Seleucids Weakened Antigonids They never got firm control of Greece Egypt’s stability & wealth The longest lived of the 3 kgd’s Most isolated of the kgd’s Most peaceful & economically stable, serving as trade link b/w Asia & Mediterranean Ptolemaic Egypt centralized govt like under the pharaohs Constant wars & revolts Gradually shrinking borders Found many colonies of Grk’s & Maced’s esp. in W. Asia to keep control, but have little cult. impact outside the cities Seleucid Asia Rich & big  Hardest area to control Philip II’s excellent army (FC.24) Persia’s decline in 300s (FC.15) Philip II’s son, Alexander III (336-323) conquers entire Persian Empire, but leaves no capable heir Other generals ally to bring him down Power struggle One dominant general By 275, three major kingdoms emerge from Alexander’s empire Hellenistic Civ. (i.e., Grk civ. after Alexander) which is characterized by: Much larger scale kgd’s, cities, trade & royal patronage of arts Contact with & influence from older cultures, esp. Egypt & Mesopotamia Greek civ. is dominant in cities, but barely found in countryside Hellenistic Civ. flourished in several areas: Medicine: • Use of pulse for diagnosis • Saw heart as pump w/valves • Surgery on hernias, hemorrhoids, bladder stones, etc. & dissections showing diff. b/w arteries & nerves Philosophy: • Stoicism which stressed duty & bearing up under hardship • Epicureanism: Life’s goal should be to avoid pain through moderate lifestyle Math & mechanical science: • Disc. of hydraulics, valves, pumps, syringes & steam power • Eratosthenes’ accurate calculation of earth’s circumference • Archimedes’ mechanical principles Rome absorbs Grk. civ. & passes it on to West. Civ. during Pax Romana (FC.33)

36. Rome

37. Hills & mts., but fewer than Greece has Hills & mts., but fewer than Greece has More farmers & fewer traders in Italy Most Greek colonies in S. Italy (a.k.a. Magna Graecia) Few resources but more than Greece has Better farmland than Greece has Persevering & group oriented Most of Italy’s good harbors are in S. & W. Alps help protect Italy from invasions Italy divided by mts., but less than Greece Location in middle of Mediterranean Away from interference by other civ’s in East Location in middle of Mediterranean Away from interference by other civ’s in East FC26 THE GEOGRAPHY OF ITALY & ITS IMPACT ON THE RISE OF ROME Heavy Greek influence on Rome (FC.19) Rome able to unite Italy under its rule (FC.28) Rome able to conquer the Mediterranean (FC.29)

38. Rome wins its freedom (c.500 B.C.E.), but faces enemies on three sides: Their practice of Augury Etruscans possibly from Asia Minor as seen in : Use of the arch Etruscans conquer Rome (c.650B.C.E.) & make it a city: Trade, metallurgy & better agriculture Swamp & field drainage & underground. sewers Rome the most important city in Central Italy Alphabet adopted from the Greeks How to build roads & bridges Urban planning on a rectangular grid Style of dress Latin tribes to the South rebel vs. Rome Hill tribes attack attack from East Etruscans decline after Grks beat them Rome allies with one tribe vs. others Romans beat Latins & form the Latin league, treating them more as allies than subjects Latins are more loyal & reliable allies Rome defeats the hill tribes Rome stays free from Etruscans Etruscans still a threat in the N. FC.27 ROME’S EARLY ROOTS: THE ETRUSCANS (c.650-400B.C.E.) Influence from Grks in S. Italy (FC.19) Influence from Grks in S. Italy (FC.19) Rome able to expand vs. its enemies (FC.28)

39. FC.28 ROME’S CONQUEST OF ITALY (c.500-265 B.C.E.) Rome establishes its indep. from Etruscans & neighboring hill tribes(FC.27) Rome conquers Etruscan Veii w/o any help from Latins Rome dominates central Italy Gauls sack Rome (387 BCE), but then return to N. Italy  Temporary setback for Rome, but Romans have deep fear of N. barbarians Rome recoversfrom Gallic disaster & resumes expansion (FC.28A) Lands on which to settle Roman poor Rome founds colonies to control new conquests Rome builds roads to move armies more quickly PATTERN OF ROMAN EXPANSION Able to conquer more lands They can buy arms & armor More soldiers for Rome’s army Rome crushes revolt by its Latin allies (343-340 BCE) & rules each Latin state separately Rome conquers Samnites & Campania (304) by adopting Samnites’ more flexible tactics Rome beats Pyrrhus of Epirus’ Hellenistic army (275 BCE) & conquers Greeks in S. Italy Romans rule Italy through: Colonies guard vs. revolt & reward loyalty w/citizenship Rewarding subjects with various grades of citizenship as they show loyalty to Rome Roads that promote trade & prosperity during peace Rome ready to expand into the Mediterranean (FC.29)

40. Hernici (366--358) Latin League (esp. Tibur & Praeneste) (358-4) Etruscans (311-308) Last Latin War (340-338) Campanii, Sidicini & Aurunci in alliance w/Latins (340) Aurnuci &/or Sidicini (337-334/3) Marsi & other tribes of Central Abruzzo (intermittently 312-298) Gauls (283) Umbrians (310-08) Aequi (304-298) Umbrians (intermittently 303-295) Etruscans (intermittently 302/1-292) Gauls (361) Gauls (360) Gauls (358) Gauls(,349) Gauls (329) Hernici (307-306) Etruscans (359-351) NORTHERN ITALY Gauls (296-85) 3rd Samnite War (298-295) Volsci (358-7) Etruscans (Very intermittently 283-64) Rome takes Capua (343) Acerrae (332) Fundi & Praevernum (330-29) Neapolis (327-326) 2nd Samnite War (326-304) CENTRAL ITALY Sabines (290) Tarentum, Samnites, Lucanians, & Bruttians (282-72) Picentes (268) Sarsina (267) Sallentinei(267-66) 1st Samnite War (343-1) Rhegium (265) SOUTHERN ITALY Volsci (346) Sora (Volscian town) (345) FC.28A ROME’S WARS OF CONQUEST IN ITALY (366-265 B.C.E.) After Gallic disaster Rome recovers & resumes expansion (FC.28) Rome ready to expand into the Mediterranean (FC.29)

41. FC.29 ROMAN DOMINANCE OF THE MEDITERRANEAN (264-133 B.C.E.) Strong Roman state ruling Italy (FC.28) Roman territory borders new neighbors Rome eventually wins those wars New mutual fears &/or chances for conquests PATTERN OF ROMAN EXPANSION PATTERN OF ROMAN EXPANSION Rome starts or is drawn into new wars Two desperate wars vs. Carthage (264-241 & 218-201 B.C.E.) because: Rome must protect trade of Greeks in S. Italy Interest in Sicily which is rich & very close to Italy Rome a major naval power controlling Sicily & W. Mediterranean Rome attacks Carthage & Spanish Celts because: Rome drawn into wars vs. Macedon & Seleucid Asia because: Rome still feared Celts & Carthage after 2 wars Carthage had conquered Spain & used it vs. Rome Constant bickering b/w Grks who run to Rome for help Rome attacks Pirates in Adriatic Mac. attacks Rome Brutal & treacherous conquest of Carthage & Spain by 133 B.C.E. Rome annexes Macedon, Greece, & Pergamum in Asia Minor by 133 B.C.E Empire Serious problems (FC.30) Ambitious genl’s (e.g., Caesar in Gaul & Pompey in Asia) conquer rest of the Mediterranean (FC.31)

42. FC.29A ROME VS CARTHAGE (264-201 BCE) Rome conquers Gauls in N. Italy (AKA Cisalpine Gaul) (225-218) Collapsing center & super. cavalry Surround & massacre Roman army at Cannae (216) Lures Romans into trap at Trebia R. (218) Contain Hannibal in S. It. w/o fighting him Rome fears Carthage’s growing power 2nd Punic War (218-201 BCE) Romans actions vs Illyrian pirates worryMacedon Roman power in Sicily worries Syracuse Carthag. gen’l, Hannibal, crosses Alps into Italy & wins sev. brilliant victories: Romans persevere despite these setbacks: Ambushes Romans at L. Trasimine (217) Macedon, Syracuse, Gauls in N. Italy & Grks in S. Italy join Hannibal vs Rome Take Syracuse after 2 year siege Carthage revives by conquering Spain as its new power base Ally w/ Grk Aetolian League vs Macedon Romans invade N. Africa & ally w/Numidians Superior cavalry vs Hannibal’s when he returns from Italy to defend Carthage Romans beats him at Zama (202) Carthage surrenders Rome must protect trade interests of Grks in S. Italy Italian merc’s in Sicily ask Rome’s help vs. Carthage Rome increasingly interested in Sicily Rome builds a navy & beats Carthaginian fleets, but loses as many ships to storms  Drawn-out war Rome finally wins Takes 3/4 Sicily Later takes advantage of revolt by Carthaginian mercenaries to take Sardinia & Corsica from Carthage 1st Punic War b/w Rome, a land power, & Carthage a naval power (264-241 BCE) Invade & take Spain from Carthage Build new armies with loyal Italians Romans rule Italy by 265 BCE (FC.28) Carthage’s long-term interests in Sicily Sicily is rich & very close to Roman Italy Rome dominates W. Mediterranean Gets drawn into wars in Hellenistic East (FC.29B)

43. FC.29B ROME DOMINATES THE MEDITERRANEAN (200-133 BCE) Mixture of civil & milit. offices in a Roman’s career Highly competitive & expensive politics Gov’s need wars to gain glory and $ (but not new lands they would have to defend & rule) Roman aggression by ambitious gov’s after 200 BCE Rome’s power in East continues to grow: Revival of Carthage’s prosperity, but not power Rome’s growing fear of a resurgent Carthage Romans treacherously attack & destroy Carthage in 3rd Punic War (149-146 BCE) Celts in Spain & N. Italy often more loyal to indiv. leaders than to the tribe Don’t follow treaties their tribe made w/Rome Misunderstandingsb/w Rome & Celtic tribesBrutal wars conquest of N. It. (c.225-175 BCE) & Spain (197-133 BC) Philip V of Macedon had attacked Rome in 2nd Punic War Rome drawn into E. Mediterranean affairs because: Smaller Greek states appeal to Rome for help vs bigger states Rome takes no land, but makes Maced. pay for war’s expenses Rome declares all Grk’s free, but backs pro-Roman oligarchs 2nd Macedonian War (200-196 BCE) Rome wins Rome gives its allies, Rhodes & Pergamum, land Rome takes no land, only $ to pay for war’s costs Breaks Macedon into 4 states Takes $Rom’s don’t pay taxes Grk charges vs Mac. 3rd Mac. War (171-167)Rome wins Rome annexes Maced. (149) Rome Annexes Greece (146) Continuing turmoil & revolts by Grks & Maced’s Syrian War (194-189) vs. Seleucid king, Antiochus III who stirs Greeks vs Rome Rome wins Rome intentionally ruins Rhodes’ trade & navy Piracy Attalus III of Pergamum wills his kingdom to Rome (133) Rome crushes Carthage by 200 BCE (FC.29A) Rome dominates Medit. by 133 BCE, but empire problems (FC.30)

44. FC.30 THE BITTER FRUITS OF ROME’S EMPIRE Rome, still with only a city-state govt., conquers an empire (FC.29) Problems for Roman peasants: Amateur provincial gov’s Influx of cheap foreign slaves Influx of cheap foreign grain Farms ruined by long wars & extended neglect Unpaid  corruption to cover expenses Unsupervised  Can be as corrupt as they want Untrained  Unable to rule well Ruined farmers go to cities Can’t find jobs Become idle mob, selling votes for food rent, & cheap entertainment No prof. bur’s to rule prov’s Auction right to collect taxes to rich MC equites who over tax provinces Prov. govt. made even worse by Two political factions: Optimates who rely on Senate & other nobles for political support Populares who rely on pop. Assemb. & mob for support Giving armies to gov’s who use them to seize power Extortion cts More corruption so gov’s can bribe juries Problems with the army: Inexperienced generals  Military defeats  Need more time to gain exper. Few suitable recruits Low morale & discipline Need professional army Two major reforms: Gen’s recruit mob with promise of landArmy more loyal to gen’s than to Senate Prolonged commands  A few experienced & ambitious generals More scope for long term campaigns Conquer new lands More $ & power for a few gen’ls compared to other senators Period of turmoil & civil wars (FC.31)

45. Priests (who are also senators) that can declare bad omens & postpone govt. business for that day Consuls & praetors (who are also members of Senate) • Control what laws are proposed to the assemblies, their text, & who gets to discuss them Senate controls popular assemblies through: Comitia Centuriata • Votes on war & peace • Weighted bloc voting to favor those who bear the brunt of the fighting (which used to be the rich) Comitia Tributa; • Votes on laws that only officials (who are also senators) can propose • Open ballots Control votes of their clientes (poor dependants) Senate controls officials who return to Senate after 1-yr terms: Tribunes (who are also members of Senate) • Supposedly protect the poor, propose laws, & can veto any act of state they or the senate want Assign budgets to governors & officials Cursus Honorum The minumum age, number of times, & order one can hold offices: Military tribune quaestor aedile or tribune praetor consul Censors: 2 officials elected every 5 yrs to choose worthy men to fill the Senate to 300 & expel unworthy senators Senate controls various traditional and religious procedures: Senate’s works to maintain its power as a body w/o any of its individual members getting too much power Senate: Advisory body of 300 ex-office holders whose decrees (senatus consulta) are not technically laws but have virtual force of law to: Rule on technical legality of treaties & laws Assign magistrates’ tasks (e.g., which proconsul rules which province & for how long) FC.31A THE FLOW OF POWER IN THE ROMANREPUBLIC Problems of ruling an empire w/city-state govt. & army of short-term amateur officials & militia (FC.30)

46. FC.31 FALL OF THE ROMAN REPUBLIC (133-31 B.C.E.) Rome grants all Italians citizenship Germanic tribes, Cimbri & Teutones, destroy a Roman army Panic in Rome Ital’s rebel to get citizenship Mithridates of Pontus attacks Romans in E. Conserv. Sen. sees any reformer as a threat The few gen’ls with armies upset Sen. BOP Rome’s problems of trying to rule its empire like a city-state (FC.30) Weakens Roman traditions & institutions (esp. Senate) Ind’s, infl. by Grk individualism pass new & disruptive reforms Tiberius & Gaius Gracchus use mob & rich Mid. class to pass reforms Killed in riots (133 & 121 B.C.E.) Marius recruits mob to create prof. army Beats Ger’s, but army is more loyal to gen’s than to Senate Sulla crushes Ital. Rev.  Wins 1st Mithridatic War Wins civil war vs. Marius’ followers Reign of terror & then retires Pompey commands armies w/o 1st holding civil offices Conquers much of E. Medit. Julius Caesar conquers Gaul  Beats Pompey in 2nd Civil War Dictator Senate kills him (44 BCE) By 212 CE Rome will extend citizenship to all free men in empire (FC.34) Caesar’s nephew & heir, Octavian, & M. Antony win 3rd civil war, vs. Caesar’s assassins (42 B.C.E)  Splits emp. w/Marc Defeats Antony & Cleopatra of Egypt (31 B.C.E) in 4th civil war Replaces senate’s power with 1-man rule known as Principate  Era of the Roman Empire (FC. 32)

47. Using old Rep’s offices to train them Works to get more reliable provincial governors through: Bureaucr. reforms Honest, efficient, & stable government in the provinces Regularly paid & trained officials Equites trained for mid-level jobs Efficient, loyal & honest provincial gov’s Cut army from from 60 to 28 legions Procurators, Augustus’ agents who watch gov’s Octavian must create a strong one-man rule while making it look like good old days of the Republic Regular pay No need for corruption Augustan Principate where Octavian (aka Augustus) kept only harmless sounding republican powers that still gave him control of armies & making laws: Proconsul’s powers to control milit. prov’s & army while leaving non-milit. provs to the Senate Succession ensured by giving chosen successor tribunician & proconsular powers before Augustus died Tribune’s powers to propose & veto laws while posing as the champion of the common people Military reforms Cheap, but highly trained & loyal army guarding frontiers Aug. gave army its pay & pensions FC.32 THE AUGUSTAN PRINCIPATE & PAX ROMANA (31 B.C.E.-180 C.E.) Civil wars & turmoil of the late republic (FC. 31) Romans’ traditional & conservative nature (FC. 26) Still need reliable army, governors, & bureaucrats for provinces (FC. 30) Rome faces few outside threats for 200 yrs. Medit’s central position fast comm’s Pax Romana: Except for conquering Britain & Dacia, 200 years of nearly unbroken peace & prosperity throughout the Mediterranean, with trade routes extending to China & India (FC. 33)

48. FC.33 THE SPREAD OF ROMAN CIVILIZATION IN WESTERN EUROPE DURING THE PAX ROMANA (31 B.C.E.-180 C.E.) Peace promotes growth of native towns into cities Heavy Romanization of urban areas & nobles’ villas in W. Europe, but less so in remote rural areas which keep older native cultures Merchants & other camp followers settle near the camp Citizen legionaries marry local women & settle by camp after their discharge Military camps grow into Roman cities since: Influx of trade & Roman & Italian merchants to the provinces Non-citizen soldiers (settle by camp & become citizens after their discharge Peacetime army builds 51,000 miles of paved roads Cities copy Roman govt. & customs Gain Roman citizenship Roman Empire functions as a virtual confederation of cities which serve as centers of local government, culture, & civic pride Cities in East retain older Greek lang. & culture Cities less deeply rooted in W. Emp. than East Roman troops are stationed in the provinces Rome conquers Britain (FC.32) Augustus establishes peace & stability (FC.32) Rome conquers Dacia (FC.32) Rome conquers Spain (FC.29B) Caesar conquers Gaul (FC.31) Greek culture carried on by Byzantine (E. Roman) Emp. (FC.44) Cities & civiliz. decline drastically during 3rd century chaos (FC.34) Despite the decline after fall of W. Roman Empire, civilization survives in Byz. Emp. & monasteries in W. Europe Revives during the Italian Renaissance in 1400s (FC.76)

49. FC.34 DECLINE & NEAR COLLAPSE OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE (I60-284 C.E.) Incapable &/or corrupt rulers after 180 C.E. Huge bonuses to keep army happy Empire needs more money Growing threats from Germanic tribes to North & Sassanid Persians to East Empire needs bigger army Series of strong military emperors who gradually restore empire (260-284) Near collapse of the Roman Empire by 260 C.E. Inflation wrecks the economy Soldiers get mad & declare their own generals emperor Soldiers demand more money Abandon frontiers to put gen’ls on throne Germanic tribes & revived Persian Empire attack weakened frontiers Disease, revolts & wars wreck econ. New diseases spread by army Empire desperately needs money Army returning from East brings epidemic Lower population & tax base Emperors raise taxes & debase coinage Few conquests after Augustus  Few new sources of money (FC.32) Growing luxury trade w/East  Huge drain of $ from empire (FC.32) Emperor Diocletian makes major reforms to revive the exhausted empire (F.C. 35)

50. FC.35 DIOCLETIAN’S REFORMS & ROME’S CONTINUING DECLINE (284-c.400 C.E.) CYCLE OF STAGNATION & DECLINE IN 300s Extremely expensive to implement all these reforms People run away to avoid taxes People tied to their jobs to ensure stable econ. Stifles initiative Lower tax base Raise taxes & increase bureaucracy Need defense vs. growing threats on frontiers Need a much larger & more mobile army than before Use Germanic recruits since empire’s population was less warlike after Pax Romana & depleted after the anarchy Lower morale & efficiency since Germanic recruits refuse to submit to Roman training & discipline Empire’s huge size  Need more efficient govt. Divides empire into Eastern & Western halves E. & W. Empires diverge culturally & politically, with Greek dominant in Eastern Empire & Latin dominant in Western Empire Though, in theory, still one empire, growing dislike & distrust between East & West More fragmented empire Overawe the populace with: Exalting emperor to demi-god status Elaborate ritual Elaborate palace Need to prevent further revolts & assassinations Give gen’ls smaller commands Split civil & military offices Anarchy & near collapse of the Roman Empire by 260 C.E. (FC.34) Gradual stagnation & decay of the empire Germanic tribes have time to absorb Roman civilization before overrunning the Western Roman Empire (FC. 36)