Morphology

1. Morphology Morphology

2. Morphology Definition: the analysis of word structure.

3. studies the ways in which morphemes are used to express grammatical contrasts in sentences studies the principles/rules governing the construction of new words Inflectional vs Derivational Morphology Morphology

4. Inflectional Morphology Morpheme - unit of meaning which may be represented by one or more allomorphs Examples: cat-s sing-ing good-ness un-happi-ly act act-ive act-iv-ity in-act-ive in-act-iv-ity

5. Kinds of Morphemes • Roots/stems/Free Morphemes • Affixes/Bound Morphemes

6. Affixes/Bound MorphemesRepresent grammatical or relational meanings Types of Affixes Prefixes - come before the stem Un-happy Suffixes - come after the stem Happi-ness Infixes - come within the stem (English doesn't use these) Tagalog (Philippine language) examples of infixes Stem: -basa- which means "read" /bumasa ako nan libro/ read I the book I read the book. (past tense) /binasa an libro/ was read the book The book was read. Bontoc (Philippine language) examples of infixes /fikas/ "strong" /fumikas/ "He is becoming strong" /bato/ "stone" /bumato/ "He is becoming stone" /fusul/ "enemy" /fumusul/ "He is becoming enemy

7. Allomorphs Definition: alternative forms which carry the same meaning but have different phonological shape.

8. Allomorphs Examples from English • /-iz/ class/classes (following sibilants s,c,z,j) • /-s/ cat/cats (following nonsibilant voiceless consonants) • /-z/ tub/tubs (following nonsibilant voiced consonants) • /-z/ bee/bees (following vowels) Allomorphs in “Plural” Morpheme (/-iz/, /-s/, /-z/)

9. Morphologically Characterized Language Types Isolating Languages Agglutinating Languages Fusional Languages Polysynthetic Languages

10. Two Questions Used to Classify Languages Morphologically • Does a word divide into smaller meaningful parts? • Does each component express a single meaning?

11. Isolating Languages Question 1 = NO Languages that use undividable words, but have strict rules of word order to keep the grammatical meanings of things clear. Also know as “analytic languages “ Included are Chinese, Indonesian, Pidgins and Creoles.

12. Isolating languages Mandarin Chinese examples /wo gang yao gei ni na yi bei cha/ I just want for you bring one cup tea "I am about to bring you a cup of tea." /xia yu/ down rain "It was/is/will be raining"

13. Agglutinating Languages Questions 1 = Yes, 3=Yes • Words can be divided into morphemes • Each morpheme expresses a separate grammatical meaning Included are Finnish, Turkish, Japanese, Tamil, etc.

14. Agglutinating Languages Turkish example from the stem /ol-/ meaning die ol-mek "to die" stem + infinitive ol-dur-mek "to kill" st+Cause+infinitive ol-dur-me-mek "to not kill" st+cause+neg+infin ol-dur-ul-mek "to be killed" st+cause+Pass+infi ol-dur-ul-me-mek "to not be killed" st+cau+pas+neg+inf oldurebilemeseydim "I wish I hadn't been able to kill" ol -dur -ebil -eme -sey -d -im die cause able not wish past I

15. Fusional Languages Questions 1 = Yes, 3=No • Words can be divided into morphemes, • Morphemes can express more than one grammatical meaning Also know as “inflectional languages “ Included are Indo-European and Afro-Asiatic languages. .

16. Fusional Languages Latin Example Declensions -- variations on nouns (e.g. man, men, man’s, men’s). Conjugations -- variations on verbs (e.g. sing, sang, sung). e pluribus unum pluribus plur- ibus many – plural/dative case “Out of many, one”

17. Systems of Inflectional Morphology Verb tenses - mark time and person English example: 6 persons and past, present, future,etc Noun tenses - mark time on nouns Japanese example: shiroi(white), shirokatta(was white), and shirkute(being white) Noun cases - mark gramatical role in sentence Finnish example: fifteen cases nominative (subject) ablative (from) allative (to) essive (as) partitive (part of) translative (change to) abessive (without) accusative (object) instructive (by) inessive (in) comitative (with) elative (out of) genitive (possessive) illative (into) adessive (on)

18. Latin Declension of “Friend” and “Field”

19. Polysynthetic Languages A small group of languages that have complex multi-morpheme words that carry a sentence-worth of information. Included are Basque and many Amerindian languages. Also know as “amalgamating languages” These languages are usually very difficult to learn, unless you are brought up with them.  The Basques joke that they are immune to the Devil because he couldn't learn their language!

20. Polysynthetic Languages Chukchi Example 1st person- big- head- aching I have a bad headache. Ojibwe Example • baataanitaaanishinaabemong = "being able to speak Ojibwe." • ngiinitaaozhibii'amaadimin = • "we used to write to each other."

21. Derivational Morphology

22. Processes of New Word Formation • Prefixation "disobey“ • Suffixation "kindness" • Conversion - a word changes its class without changing its form "carpet (n.)" becomes "carpet (v.)" • Compounding - two free bases/stems are added together “blackbird" • Reduplication - "goody-goody" "wishy-washy" "teeny-weeny" • Clippings - "ad" "telly" "flu" • Acronyms - "NATO" "DJ" "VIP" • Blends - "Brunch" from Breakfast and Lunch "Telex" from teleprinter and exchange

23. Defining “Word” Five ways to identify a word 1. Potential Pauses - consistent pauses in speech when sentence spoken slowly. 2. Indivisibility - where are additional words added? They will be added between words, not within them. 3. Minimal Free Forms - Bloomfield defined as: the smallest units of speech that can meaningfully stand on their own. 4. Phonetic Boundaries - in languages with consistent and uniform stress (for example Welsh on the last syllable) can identify the end of each word by stress. 5. Semantic Units - in some sentences, words constitute units of meaning (Dog bites man.) However, in other sentences, words are not clearly separate units of meaning (I switched on the light.) "the" doesn't have a clear separate meaning, and "switched on" requires two words to convey meaning.

24. Word Classes Definition: groups based on the way words are used/behave in language Example from English nouns boy, machine, beauty pronouns she, it, who adjectives happy, three, both verbs go, frighten, be prepositions in, under, with conjunctions and, because, if adverbs happily, soon, often interjections gosh, wow, alas also sometimes participles looking, taken articles a, the, an

25. Criteria for Word Classes Example of adjective criteria from English Five criteria for "adjectiveness" A. occurs after form of to be - he's sad. B. occurs after articles and before nouns – the big car. C. occurs after very - very nice. D. occurs in the comparative or superlative - sadder/saddest, more/most important. E. occurs before -ly to form adverbs - quickly

26. Gradience Words will not always fit neatly in one particular class Example from English - "round“ Adjective Mary bought a round table. Preposition The car went round the corner. Verb The yacht will round the buoy soon. Adverb We walked round to the shop. Noun It's your round. I'll have a beer.

27. Adjective Gradience in Six Words A. occurs after form of to be - he's sad. B. occurs after articles and before nouns – the big car. C. occurs after very - very nice. D. occurs in the comparative or superlative -sadder/saddest, more/most important. E. occurs before -ly to form adverbs - quickly