Understanding Aspectual and Modal Auxiliaries in Syntax

1. Syntax Lecture 11: Auxiliary verbs

2. The Aspectual Auxiliaries Modal auxiliaries belong to the category I • They are in complementary distribution with tense: • * Mary could loved John • (= it was possible that Mary loved John) • They are in complementary distribution with the infinitival marker: • * I expected [Mary could to love John] • I expected [Mary to love John] • I expected [Mary could love John] • They are in complementary distribution with each other: • * Mary could might love John • It was possible that Mary might love John

3. The Aspectual Auxiliaries There are other auxiliary verbs which are not in complementary distribution with any of these things (or each other): • Mary is/was flying to America • I expect [Mary to be flying to America] • Mary could be flying to America • Mary has/had flown to America • I expect [Mary to have flown to America] • Mary could have flown to America • Mary has been flying to America

4. Continuous be now reading Point under discussion reading Point under discussion reading Point under discussion The continuous (or progressive) form of a sentence refers to a state of affairs that started at some point before the point under discussion and will end at some point after: • This point can be now: • I am reading • Some time in the past: • I was reading • Some point in the future: • I will be reading

5. Continuous be Formally it is indicated by the presence of the auxiliary be and the inflection –ing on the verbal element following the auxiliary: • She is flying to America (inflection on main verb) • She was being flown to America (inflection on auxiliary) This inflection is not the same as tense (category I) as they have different distributions: • She is/was flying to America • She has/had been flying to America • She flies/flew/*flying to America

6. Perfect have I am a linguist 1984 now writing writing writing 1986 now The perfect form has a complicated semantics and can mean different things in different cases. Two of these meanings are: • Universal perfect (state of affairs started at some point in the past and continued uninterrupted to the present • I have been a linguist since 1984 • Experiential perfect (state of affairs occurred one or more times at some point between, but not including, a past date and the present) • I have written papers on linguistics since 1986 .

7. Perfect have The form, like the continuous, involves an auxiliary and an inflection on the following verbal element: • I have written a paper • I have been writing a paper Sometimes this inflection looks like past tense, but it is not tense (or of the category I) as it doesn’t have the same distribution: • She has/had dropped the ball • She could have dropped the ball • She dropped the ball (= simple past)

8. Aspectual forms in Combination The perfect and the continuous can appear together When they do, the perfect always precedes the continuous: • She has been dancing

9. Aspectual forms in Combination The perfect and the continuous can appear together When they do, the perfect always precedes the continuous: • She has been dancing

10. Aspectual forms in Combination The perfect and the continuous can appear together When they do, the perfect always precedes the continuous: • She hasbeen dancing

11. Aspectual forms in Combination The perfect and the continuous can appear together When they do, the perfect always precedes the continuous: • She hasbeen dancing • * She is having danced

12. Aspectual forms in Combination The perfect and the continuous can appear together When they do, the perfect always precedes the continuous: • She hasbeen dancing • * She is having danced

13. Aspectual forms in Combination The perfect and the continuous can appear together When they do, the perfect always precedes the continuous: • She hasbeen dancing • * She ishaving danced

14. The position of aspectual auxiliaries The aspectuals seem to occupy a position between the inflection and the VP. What is the nature of these positions?

15. The aspectuals are inside the VP I always takes a VP complement So the aspectual auxiliaries must be inside VP They cannot be in the specifier position: • There is already a specifier (the moved subject) • There can only be one specifier They are not adjuncts: • There can only be two of them

16. Aspectuals as heads The only possibility left is that aspectual auxiliaries are heads of their own phrases. These phrases are VPs, so the aspecuals are verbs. The perfect aspectual verbs takes a VP complement headed by the main verb

17. Aspectuals as heads The continuous aspect verb also takes a VP complement headed by the main verb.

18. Aspectuals as heads The perfect aspect verb can take a VP complement headed by the continuous aspect verb which has its own VP complement headed by the main verb.

19. The status of the aspectual inflections Aspectual forms involve an auxiliary and an inflection. How should we analyse the inflection? There are cases when the inflection appears without the auxiliary: • Him flown to America? I don’t believe it! • He has flown to America • I watched [him mending the car] • He is mending the car This indicates that it is the inflection which is the central part of these aspectual constructions, not the auxiliary.

20. Tense Tense has the category of Inflection (I) The agent moves to the subject position When the main verb is able to, it moves to support the tense

21. Aspectual inflections Aspectual inflections are not of the category I They head VPs, so they have the category V The agent moves to the subject position When it is able to, the main verb will move to support the aspectual inflection But this leaves the tense unsupported

22. Aspectual Auxiliaries be If English were Hungarian (an agglutinating language), the verb could also move to support the tense. But English verbs can only support one inflection Therefore, the auxiliary is inserted, as a dummy, to support the tense ‘be’ plus ‘-ed’ is pronounced ‘was’ • John was smiling

23. Which Auxiliary? ‘be’ is inserted when the following aspectual head is continuous ‘-ing’ ‘have’ is inserted when the following aspectual head is perfect ‘-en’ This can be best seen when both are present in the same sentence.

24. Which Auxiliary? have be As the main verb supports the continuous ‘-ing’, the tense and the perfect are unsupported. Therefore two auxiliaries will be needed ‘be’ is used to support the perfect, as the following head is ‘-ing’ ‘have’ is used to support the tense as the following head is ‘-en’ • John had been smiling

25. Conclusion The part of the sentence that expresses aspectual meaning is placed ‘mid-field’ between the inflection and the main VP The aspectual elements themselves are of the category V It is the inflections which are the elements which carry the aspectual meanings and head these phrases The auxiliary verbs are inserted ‘dummies’ whose purpose is to support other inflections that the verb cannot because it can only support one inflection.