Syntax

1. Syntax Lecture 3: The Subject

2. The Basic Structure of the Clause • Recall that our theory of structure says that all structures follow this pattern: • It therefore must be the case that clauses have this structure too • they must have a: • Head • Complement • Specifier

3. The Contents of the Clause • Generally it is accepted that clauses contain three obligatory elements: • A subject • A predicate (= VP) • A category (referred to as ‘Inflection’) which is made up of one of the following: • A modal auxiliary (will, could, shall, must, etc.) • The marker of the infinitive (to) • A marker of tense (tense inflection on verbal element)

4. The Contents of the Clause • For example: • [the bomb] [may] [destroy the building] • (they want) [the bomb] [to] [destroy the building] • [the bomb] [destroyed the building]

5. The Contents of the Clause • Each of these elements are obligatory • * may destroy the building (no subject) • * the bomb may (no predicate) • * the bomb destroy the building (no inflection)

6. The Head of the Clause • Given that the subject and the predicate are phrases, the only possible head of the clause is the inflection as: • It is a word • It comes in the middle of the clause • The inflection determines the ‘type’ of the clause • Finite if it contains a modal or a tense • Infinitive if it contains ‘to’

7. How the clause fits X-bar theory • Heads determine the nature of the phrase, therefore the clause is an inflectional phrase • As the VP follows the inflection, it seems to be in the complement position • As the subject precedes the inflection, it seems to be in the specifier position

8. Example

9. Properties of the subject • The subject is in specifier of IP • This accounts for why it is the first element of the clause (specifiers precede X1 in English) • The subject is usually an argument of the verb • The ice will melt • He will read the paper • But it is the only argument that is not inside the VP • Why is the subject special in this way?

10. Properties of the subject • For some verbs, the subject is not an argument: • It would seem that the ice melted • It could turn out that he will read the paper • This suggests that the subject position is empty semantically, but filled for syntactic reasons • The must be a syntactic subject (specifier of IP must be filled)= Extended Projection Principle

11. Properties of the subject • Sometimes we find subjects inside VP: • The heat made [the ice melt] • ‘the ice melt’ is like an IP (clause) • The heat caused [the ice to melt] • ‘the ice melt’ is not an IP (clause) because it doesn’t contain an I: • * the heat made [the ice to melt] • * the heat made [the ice will melt] • * the heat made [the ice melted/melts] • The only other thing it could be is a VP – containing a subject

12. Questions arising • Why is the subject special? • All other arguments are inside VP • Why is the subject position an argument position in some cases but not others? • If there is a subject position inside the VP, why do we never have two subjects?: • * John will Mary read the paper

13. The Passive • In passives, the subject position is filled by what is interpreted as object: • The paper will be read (by everyone) • This raises problems as object usually can’t occupy this position – they usually have to occupy the object position: • Everyone will read the paper • * the paper will read (by everyone)

14. The Passive • A more uniform analysis would be to assume that object always occupy object positions • But in passives they move to the subject position because this position is underlyingly empty • The subject position must be filled (EPP)

15. The Passive • This accounts for why the object position must be empty in the passive: • * the paper was read the book (by everyone) • That the subject position is underlyingly empty is supported by: • Everyone thought [that the ice had melted] • The ice was thought [to have melted] • It was thought [that the ice had melted]

16. Consequences for Grammatical Theory • If elements move from one position to another, there are two ways to describe a structure • Before the movement takes place (D-structure) • After the movement takes place (S-structure)

17. Consequences for the Subject Position • There appear to be three ways to fill a subject position: • Fill it with an argument • Fill it with a meaningless element (it) • Move the object into it • This is a bit complicated – it would be better if the subject position could be treated more simply

18. Collapsing meaningless subjects and moved objects • Given the two structural descriptions of a sentence (D- and S-structure), it is possible to view meaningless subjects and moved objects in a similar way • Suppose that at D-structure in both cases the subject position is empty • – may seem [that the ice melted] • – was read the paper (by everyone)

19. Collapsing meaningless subjects and moved objects • At S-structure the subject must be filled, so: • The object moves in the passive • was read • ‘it’ is inserted when there is no object • may seem [that the ice melted] the paper – it –

20. Unifying all subjects • There are two remaining problems: • Some subjects are filled without movement or insertion = arguments • Some subject arguments appear inside VP • But, if we suppose that all subject arguments start off inside the VP, we end up with a remarkably uniform theory: • The underlying subject position is always empty • It gets filled by things moving to it or being inserted • All arguments of a verb originate within the VP

21. Example • Subject position is vacant (waiting for something) • Verb has all its arguments near by • So verbs can’t have arguments just anywhere • John said Bill saw Mary

22. Example • Argument moves to vacant subject position

23. Example • In passives there is no subject argument at D-structure • The subject position is still vacant and needs to be filled

24. Example • Therefore a different argument has to move – i.e. the object.

25. Example • With verbs like seem, there is no subject or object argument at D-structure

26. Example • So at S-structure a grammatical subject is inserted

27. Summary • All arguments of the verb start off inside the VP • The specifier of the IP must be filled • If there is an argument inside the VP (subject or object) that can move, it will move to the specifier of IP • If there is no argument, a meaningless subject (it) will be inserted