Syntax

1. Syntax Lecture 10: Auxiliaries

2. Types of auxiliary verb • Modal auxiliaries belong to the category of inflection • They are in complementary distribution with • Tense morphemes • * he may went • The infinitive marker (to) • * he may to go • Other modal auxiliaries • * he may can go

3. Types of auxiliary verb • Non-modal auxiliaries (have and be – aspectual auxiliaries) are not in complementary distribution with • Tense morphemes • He had/has gone • He is/was going • The infinitival marker • ... Him to have gone • ... Him to be going • Modal auxiliaries • He may have gone • He may be going • We conclude that these auxiliaries do not belong to the category of Inflection

4. The place of aspectual auxiliaries • The auxiliaries have and be precede the main verb but follow the inflection • He may V-en/-ing • The inflection always takes a VP complement • He may [VP --- ] • It follows that the auxiliaries must be inside the VP have be

5. The place of aspectual auxiliaries • There are 4 possible positions any element can be in a phrase • Head • Complement • Specifier • Adjunct • We can immediately rule out complement as the auxiliary is in front of the verb

6. The place of aspectual auxiliaries • For auxiliaries to be specifiers or adjuncts they must be analysed as phrases • But there is no reason to consider have and be as phrases • The only feasible analysis is therefore that auxiliaries are verbal heads

7. Evidence for the V analysis of auxiliaries • The VP can undergo two specific operations in English • VP fronting • Give in to blackmail, this government never will • VP deletion • You might apologise to her but I certainly won’t • If the auxiliary heads a VP which contains another VP headed by the lexical verb, we would expect either VP to be frontable and deletable

8. Evidence for the V analysis of auxiliaries • VP fronting • I thought he might not have written the article but

9. Evidence for the V analysis of auxiliaries • VP fronting • I thought he might not have written the article but • [VP Written the article], he might have

10. Evidence for the V analysis of auxiliaries • VP fronting • I thought he might not have written the article but • [VP Written the article], he might have • [VP Have written the article], he might

11. Evidence for the V analysis of auxiliaries • VP fronting • I thought he might not have written the article but • [VP Written the article], he might have • [VP Have written the article], he might • VP deletion • He won’t have written the article but

12. Evidence for the V analysis of auxiliaries • VP fronting • I thought he might not have written the article but • [VP Written the article], he might have • [VP Have written the article], he might • VP deletion • He won’t have written the article but • She will have [VP]

13. Evidence for the V analysis of auxiliaries • VP fronting • I thought he might not have written the article but • [VP Written the article], he might have • [VP Have written the article], he might • VP deletion • He won’t have written the article but • She will have [VP] • She will [VP]

14. The nature of auxiliaries • Have and be are used in different contexts • Be is used • When there is no verbal predicate • He is tall • In progressive constructions • He is running • In passive constructions • He is beaten • Have is used • In perfect constructions • He has read the book

15. The nature of auxiliaries • In all these cases (except the copula) the auxiliary bears tense and is accompanied by a specific morpheme on the following verb • He is/was running • He is/was beaten • He has/had beaten the eggs • The ‘double’ appearance of auxiliary + morpheme is rather puzzling – why are both things needed?

16. The nature of auxiliaries • In situations where tense is not present (special clauses sometimes called Small Clauses), we get the morpheme, but not the auxiliary • I saw [him running away] (he was running away) • I heard [the window broken] (the window was broken) • Him finished the exam already! (he had finished the exam already) • This suggests that the auxiliary’s role is simply to support tense • It is the inflection that carries the appropriate meaning

17. Do as a dummy • Do only ever appears in the inflection position and is in complementary distribution with all free inflections • * He will do not leave • * for him to do not leave • However, it cannot be analysed as an inflection as it always appears with an inflection – the bound tense morpheme • He did/does not know • * He do not know

18. Do as a dummy • Do also only ever appears in certain types of construction • Negative • He did not blink • Interrogatives • Did he blink • What did he say • We can account for this behaviour if we assume that do is used to support tense in situations where the main verb cannot: • * he blinked not • * blinked he • * what said he • The main verb never precedes the negative particle not or the subject • So when there is a bound inflection and the verb cannot move to support it, something else must

19. Do as a dummy

20. Do as a dummy • Seen like this, do is a dummy auxiliary • It adds nothing to the semantics of the sentence, but performs a purely grammatical role • But • have and be function to support tense • the aspectual meaning they are associated with are carried by the inflections • So have and be themselves contribute no meaning • Therefore, have and be also appear to be dummies

21. Have and be as dummies • Why do we need a dummy in progressive, passive and perfect constructions? • These constructions are associated with a bound morpheme • Progressive = -ing • Passive = -en (or irregular forms) • Perfect = -en (or irregular forms) • Typically it is the main verb which supports these • He is running • He was seen • He has gone • English is not an agglutinating language • Each head can support only one overt inflection • * he runninged • * he seened • * he goned • If the main verb supports the progressive, passive or perfect morpheme, something else must support tense

22. Have and be as dummies progressive passive perfect

23. Have and be as dummies • What determines which dummy to use? • When the following head is perfect use have

24. Have and be as dummies • What determines which dummy to use? • When the following head is perfect use have • When the following head is a thematic verb use do

25. Have and be as dummies • What determines which dummy to use? • When the following head is perfect use have • When the following head is a thematic verb use do • Use be in all other cases

26. Have and be as dummies • What determines which dummy to use? • When the following head is perfect use have • When the following head is a thematic verb use do • Use be in all other cases

27. Combinations • Because the aspectual heads select for VP complements and project VPs, they are not in complementary distribution • When they appear together they have a strict order: • Perfect – progressive – passive • He had been running (perf + prog) • He was being followed (prog + pass) • He had been followed (perf + pass) • He had been being followed (perf + prog + pass)

28. The worst case

29. Conclusion • The non-modal (aspectual) elements in English are verbal • They are realised as bound morphemes • Because English is not agglutinating, the main verb can only support one overt morpheme • When an aspectual morpheme is present, tense and other bound morphemes therefore have to be bound by a dummy auxiliary • Have, be and do are all dummy auxiliaries used to bind tense and other morphemes under various situations