Ch. 12: Industrialization and Nationalism, 1800 - 1870

Ch. 12: Industrialization and Nationalism, 1800 - 1870 Text pgs. 360 - 391

I. The Industrial RevolutionA. The Industrial Revolution in Great Britain • The Industrial Revolution is a period of European history in which new agricultural, manufacturing and transport technologies changed the way goods were produced. This had a major effect on society as a whole and people’s lives particularly. • Changes in manufacturing began in Great Britain in the late 1700s, but it was not until decades later that these changes were introduced to other nations. Why was Britain first? There are a number of factors that gave Britain an advantage. English factory

I. The Industrial RevolutionB. Contributing Factors • Agriculture in Britain had been changed dramatically in the 1700s. More farmland was cultivated. A four-field crop rotation was introduced that made better use of fields. New crops, like potatoes and corn, were imported. Food became cheaper and required less labor. • With greater availability of food, the population began to rise. During this time, Parliament passed laws that allowed large-scale landowners to take land that had been for common use and fence it in. This enclosure movement forced thousands of rural laborers to move into large cities and look for work.

I. The Industrial RevolutionB. Contributing Factors • Britain had a large amount of money available for investment, called capital. Some people, known as entrepreneurs, used their capital to found new businesses, buy machinery and build factories. • Britain also had natural resources. Early factories relied on rivers for power and transportation. Later, coal was used as a power source. Iron and tin were necessary for building machinery. Britain had all of these in huge quantities. • Finally, British merchants had access to markets for manufactured goods. People in Britain had money to spare, and British colonies required finished products. The merchant marine could transport goods all over the world. Rivers & Canals CuttySark

I. The Industrial RevolutionPreview • Change in Cotton Production • The Coal and Iron Industries • Railroads • Pgs. 364 - 365

I. The Industrial RevolutionC. Change in Cotton Production • Britain dominated the manufacture of cotton cloth in the 1700s. Production required two steps: Cotton fiber was pulled into thread by spinners, then thread was woven into cloth on looms. Traditionally, this was all done by individuals in their homes, a system called cottage industry. • Cottage industry was rendered redundant by technological advances in the 1700s. The invention of the “flying shuttle” made weaving faster, which increased demand for thread. • The spinning jenny, an automatic thread puller, was invented in 1764 by James Hargreaves. Other spinning machines increased the production of thread beyond what weavers could use.

I. The Industrial RevolutionC. Change in Cotton Production • The power loom, invented by Edmund Cartwright in 1787, used a water wheel to drive weaving machines. Factories had to be located near rivers, so it was more practical to bring workers to the mills. • Water power was replaced by steam engines, invented by James Watt and perfected by 1782. Steam could power both spinning and weaving equipment, and these mills could be located anywhere. • Cotton cloth production increased by over 1000 percent from 1760 to 1840. Cotton goods became Britain’s primary export, and nearly all of it was made in factories. Power loom James Watt

I. The Industrial RevolutionD. The Coal and Iron Industries • The success and versatility of the steam engine caused its use to expand rapidly in the late eighteenth century. These machines burned coal for fuel, which meant that there was a parallel increase in coal mining. The abundance of coal also led to changes in the iron industry. • In the 1780s, Henry Cort introduced the process of puddling, in which coke (derived from coal) was used to drive out the impurities in pig iron. This produced a much higher quality of iron. • The puddling process led to a boom in British iron production. By 1852, British foundries produced 3 million tons of iron a year, more than all other countries combined. Child coal miners Puddling furnace

I. The Industrial RevolutionE. Railroads • Several developments in transportation occurred in the late 1700s. Paved roads and canals improved transport efficiency, but the railway system made the greatest impact. • The first commercial railway in Britain opened in 1804. It only hauled 10 tons of cargo at 5 mph. By 1850, trains could reach 50 mph and pull up to 40 tons. There were 6,000 miles of track covering Britain. • Reliable rail transport allowed merchants to move their products to market faster and cheaper than ever before. Communication between cities improved. Workers could commute to factories with ease, and thousands of railway jobs were created. The Rocket

I. The Industrial RevolutionPreview • The New Factories • The Spread of Industrialization • Europe • Pgs. 365 - 366

I. The Industrial RevolutionF. The New Factories • The factory system drastically changed how labor was organized. Machines and facilities were expensive to build, so factory owners wanted to get as much use out of them as possible. Consequently, owners organized their workers into shifts that worked as much as 18 hours at a stretch, often overnight. Men, women, and children as young as six worked in the mills. • Early factory employees had mostly come from farming backgrounds, where they were used to periods of heavy labor broken up by slower periods. In order to adapt them to the factory system, owners would charge fines for being late, punish workers for being drunk, and beat child laborers for being disobedient. 19th century machine shop Factory girls

I. The Industrial RevolutionG. The Spread of Industrialization • By the mid-1800s, industrialization had made Great Britain the most prosperous and economically powerful nation in the world. • In 1850, Britain produced over half of the coal used and manufactured goods bought. Cotton production was equal to all other nations combined. • Naturally, other nations had witnessed what Britain was able to do. They wished to copy the British model and increase their own production. The Industrial Revolution spread to Europe and North America by the early nineteenth century.

I. The Industrial RevolutionH. Europe • The Industrial Revolution reached different European nations at different times. Those countries that had urbanized populations and manufacturing traditions, like France, Belgium and the German states, adapted to the factory system more quickly. • In each of these cases, the government took an active role in the spread of industrialization. States built railroads and canals to facilitate transport. • By contrast, nations like Spain and Russia had agrarianpopulations, relatively little manufacturing, and disinterested governments. They adopted industrialization much later. European tenements

I. The Industrial RevolutionPreview • North America • Social Impact in Europe • Growth of Population and Cities • Pgs. 366 - 368

I. The Industrial RevolutionHomework • Answer each question in a half-page response with complete sentences. Be accurate, be specific, be complete. Due tomorrow. • 1. In what ways did British workers have to adapt to the factory system? What did owners do to make them adapt? • 2. What technological changes led to the development of industrialization? • 3. Critical Thinking (10 pts.): Look at the graph on pg. 366. How did Britain’s population growth compare to the United States’ growth between 1830 and 1870? How do they compare between 1870 and 1900? Why is there a difference?

I. The Industrial RevolutionI. North America • Beginning in 1800, the United States underwent an industrial revolution as well. By 1860, half of all workers were employed in factories, and nine cities had populations over 100,000. • For a nation the size of the U.S., transportation was key. Robert Fulton invented the first paddlewheel steamer in 1807. 50 years later, thousands of them cruised the Mississippi. Between 1830 and 1860, almost 30,000 miles of railroad track were added. • Heavy industry was mostly located in the northeast, where textile factories predominantly hired women. In some factory towns, whole families were hired, including children. Rear-wheel steamer Reading line locomotive Lawrence Textiles, Inc.

I. The Industrial RevolutionJ. Social Impact in Europe • Industrialization dramatically changed the social structure of Europe in the 1800s. Economic power shifted away from the nobility, who had traditionally managed the finances of European nations, to the upper-middle class, who owned the new factories and controlled a major stake in nations’ financial futures. • In addition, two entirely new social classes were created by the 1850s: The industrial middle class, and the industrial working class. These groups were distinct from the middle class and urban poor whom they competed with. Industrial middle class Industrial working class

I. The Industrial RevolutionK. Growth of Population and Cities • From 1750 to 1850, the population of Europe nearly doubled, from 140 million to 266 million. This drastic increase was caused by declining death rates, fewer wars, and less disease. The increase was so abrupt that economist Thomas Malthus predicted that the world would run out of food within a century. • The exception to the trend was the potato famine of the 1840s. When a fungal infection destroyed the potato crop, nearly 1 million Irish people died, and another million migrated to America. • Steam power allowed factories to relocate into major cities. Railroads allowed rural workers to move into urban areas to find work. By 1850, over 50% of the British population lived in London or one of the other 18 cities with a population over 50,000. • This led to appalling urban conditions. There were no sanitation laws. Buildings were not subject to codes. Deaths due to disease and fire were common. Calls for reform led to dramatic changes in the second half of the century.

I. The Industrial RevolutionPreview • The Industrial Middle Class • The Industrial Working Class • Early Socialism • Pgs. 368 - 370

I. The Industrial RevolutionL. The Industrial Middle Class • In the nineteenth century, the economic environment of Europe was defined as industrial capitalism, a system based on manufacturing. This new system created a new element within the urban middle class – the industrial middle class. • The bourgeoisie of the 1700s had included merchants, lawyers, bankers and government officials. In the 1800s, that group was expanded to include entrepreneurs, factory owners and stock market traders. • The industrial middle class came to be defined by their ambition, initiative, and greed. Above all else, profit was their prime motivator. Elias Howe Stock prices, 1750 - 1900

I. The Industrial RevolutionM. The Industrial Working Class • Industrialization also changed the lives of the urban poor. Unskilled or semi-skilled laborers became part of the industrial working class. • Conditions for workers were terrible. They worked as much as sixteen hours a day, six days a week, in dangerous and unhealthy facilities. There was no minimum wage, no safety laws and no unemployment insurance. • The worst conditions were in coal mines. In tunnels four feet high and poorly lit, men dug tons of coal with hand tools. Women and children hauled the coal. Cave-ins, explosions and gas leaks were constant threats. Coal dust and dampness caused permanent back and lung injuries. Hauling Sorting Cave-in

I. The Industrial RevolutionM. The Industrial Working Class • Cotton mills were also dangerous work environments. Fast-moving machines had no safety guards. The buildings were hot, dusty and unhealthy. • Cotton mills employed a high number of women and children. In 1833, Britain passed the Factory Act, which limited the age and work hours for children. • Women earned less than half the wages of men. Laws limited the number of hours women could work. • Limits on women and child labor hurt family income, and men were expected to make up the difference by working even longer hours. Gradually, women left the workforce in favor of caring for the home and family. Overhead drive belts Mill girls Facial injury

I. The Industrial RevolutionN. Early Socialism • The appalling living and working conditions created by the Industrial Revolution prompted the rise of socialism. Socialism is a political and economic system in which the government owns factories and runs them for the benefit of the employees. • Early socialists believed in the equality of all people and the power of cooperation. The cotton manufacturer Robert Owen created two ideal factory towns in New Lanark, Scotland and New Harmony, Indiana. The American experiment was a failure. • Later socialists, after Karl Marx, were more cynical and labeled the previous generation as utopian socialists. Robert Owen New Lanark Mill Karl Marx

II. Reaction and RevolutionPreview • The Congress of Vienna • The Conservative Order • Forces of Change • Pgs. 371 - 373

II. Reaction and RevolutionA. The Congress of Vienna • Once Napoleon was defeated and exiled, the great powers of Europe (Britain, Austria, Prussia and Russia) moved to restore the old order. Representatives met at the Congress of Vienna in 1814, a meeting organized by Prince Klemens von Metternich. • The guiding principle behind Metternich’s plan was supposed to be legitimacy – that royal families be returned to their thrones. This was done in France, but overlooked elsewhere. • Instead, the great powers shuffled territories amongst themselves to create a new balance of power. The idea was to keep the four most powerful nations about equal, so no one could dominate the others. Prince Metternich The new map of Europe

II. Reaction and RevolutionB. The Conservative Order • The Congress of Vienna was a victory for conservatism – a political view that values tradition and stability. Conservatives resisted social change, believed in obedience to authority, and supported established religion. They feared revolutions and disallowed individual rights. • In order to maintain the balance of power, the great powers agreed to periodic meetings known as the Concert of Europe. These meetings led to the principle of intervention, which allowed the great powers to send troops to other countries in order to stop revolutions. Britain refused to accept the principle of intervention, but the other great powers used it to defeat attempted revolutions in Spain and Italy. The “Concert of Europe” The Spanish Revolution of 1808 – 1820, by Goya

II. Reaction and RevolutionC. Forces of Change • Conservatism ruled political thought in Europe from 1815 to 1830. The great powers managed to suppress revolutions and maintain the balance of power. The ideological gains of the French Revolution had been reversed in favor of obedience and stability. • Change could not be prevented forever. The urge toward liberty and individual rights was too strong. Two powerful forces opposed the new order: Liberalism and nationalism.

II. Reaction and RevolutionPreview • Liberalism • Nationalism • Revolutionary Outbursts • Pgs. 373 - 374

II. Reaction and RevolutionHomework • Answer each question in a half-page response with complete sentences. Be accurate, be specific, be complete. Due tomorrow. • 1. What type of working conditions did industrial workers face? • 2. What was Prince Metternich’s guiding principle at the Congress of Vienna? Was it carried out? • 3. Describe the views of the conservative movement.

II. Reaction and RevolutionD. Liberalism • The philosophy of liberalism comes largely from Enlightenment thought. Liberals believed that governments should restrict individual liberty as little as possible. • Liberals thought that basic civil liberties (freedom of speech, press, assembly, equality before the law) should be protected by some form of bill of rights. Most also believed in religious toleration and separation of church and state. • Liberalism favored a constitutional monarchy managed by a legislative assembly elected by qualified voters. Liberals did not advocate universal suffrage, preferring to give the vote only to male landowners. German middle-class “Liberal barbarism”

II. Reaction and RevolutionE. Nationalism • Nationalism was a creation of the French Revolution. People realized that they were a part of a community defined by shared institutions, language, and customs. Nationalists are those whose loyalty is to the nation, rather than to a dynasty. • Nationalists felt that each group should have its own country. Germans, who had been politically divided for centuries, wanted a unified Germany. Hungarians, who were dominated by foreign powers, wanted independence. • Conservativesfeared nationalism because it could threaten the balance of power. Liberals favored nationalism because it provided for self-government. Nations on parade

II. Reaction and RevolutionF. Revolutionary Outbursts • By 1830, conservatism had lost its grip on European politics. Nationalist and liberal motivations led to a series of revolutions. • Charles X, the king of France, attempted to abolish the legislature in 1830. The people of France revolted, removed Charles, and replaced him with his cousin Louis-Philippe. • That same year, Belgium rebelled against the Dutch Republic and became independent. Poland rebelled against Russian rule, but was defeated. Italy attempted to become independent, but Austria intervened to prevent it. Revolution of 1830 Louis-Philippe

II. Reaction and RevolutionPreview • The Revolutions of 1848 • Another French Revolution • Trouble in the German States • Pgs. 374 - 375

II. Reaction and RevolutionG. The Revolutions of 1848 • Liberalism and nationalism had made some gains in France and Belgium in 1830, but the forces of conservatism still dominated the rest of Europe. The great powers continued to dominate politics. • Another wave of revolutions changed all that. In 1848, no less than eleven major uprisings rocked Europe. The balance of power was permanently shifted, and the map of Europe was changed forever.

II. Reaction and RevolutionH. Another French Revolution • In France, unrest began in 1846. Economic problems oppressed the poor, while the middle class demanded voting rights. Louis-Philippe refused to make changes. • Revolution broke out in 1848, and Louis-Philippe was deposed. A provisional government was created by moderate and radical republicans. This Constituent Assembly called for a new constitution, and elections based on universal male suffrage. • Radicals in the government created workhouses to combat unemployment. They were so expensive to operate that the moderates closed them after four months. This sparked a revolt of the poor, which the government brutally crushed. • The new constitution was ratified on November 4, 1848, creating the Second Republic. The first president, elected through universal male suffrage, was Napoleon’s nephew, Louis-Napoleon. Street barricades Louis-Napoleon

II. Reaction and RevolutionI. Trouble in the German States • The French uprising helped spread liberal and nationalist sentiments to other parts of Europe in 1848. • The Congress of Vienna had created the German Confederation, a loose organization of 38 independent states, including Austria and Prussia. Many of these states experienced agitation for constitutional reforms in 1848. • An all-German parliament, the Frankfurt Assembly, met to draft a constitution for a unified Germany. Representatives were elected through universal male suffrage. Unfortunately, unity was prevented by the opposition of Austria. The Frankfurt Assembly closed in 1849 without achieving much. Frankfurt Assembly Barricades in Berlin

II. Reaction and RevolutionPreview • Revolutions in Central Europe • Revolts in the Italian States • Breakdown of the Concert of Europe • Pgs. 375 - 379

II. Reaction and RevolutionJ. Revolutions in Central Europe • The Austrian Empire was ripe for revolution. The multi-national state was composed of Germans, Hungarians, Czechs, Slovakians, Romanians, Slovenes, Poles, Croats, Serbians and Italians. Germans led the government, through they made up less than 25% of the population. • Anti-government demonstrations in Vienna succeeded in removing Metternich from the foreign ministry. Nationalist groups demanded a constitution. The government granted autonomy to Hungary. The Czechs insisted on the same. • With assistance from Russia, the Austrian government was able to defeat the rebels in Prague, Vienna and Budapest. Military force had defeated these revolutions. Russians in Budapest Capitol, Vienna

II. Reaction and RevolutionK. Revolts in the Italian States • Italy was divided into nine states by the Congress of Vienna. The two northern provinces, Lombardy and Venetia, had been granted to Austria. In 1848, they rebelled against imperial rule. • Following their lead, people of other Italian states demanded liberal reform and unification. The Papal States, the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, and the Piedmont all had revolutions in 1848 and 1849. • The Italian revolts were all crushed, and the old order was preserved. This was the case with most of the revolutions of 1848: moderate liberals and radicals struggled with each other and conservative forces took advantage. Italian & Austrian soldiers

III. National Unification & the Nation StateA. Breakdown of the Concert of Europe • The promise of the revolutions of 1848 had not paid off. By 1871, that promise would be fulfilled, and the decisive event was the Crimean War. • The Ottoman Empire had ruled over southeastern Europe for three hundred years, but by 1850 its authority was weakening. Russia, believing itself to be the savior of all Slavic peoples, determined to take control of the Balkans. In 1853, Russia invaded the Crimean Peninsula. • Russia’s conquest of the eastern Balkans threatened the balance of power. France and Britain declared war on Russia in 1854. • The war was poorly fought on both sides. In 1856, Russia sued for peace. Romania and Wallachia were placed under the authority of all the great powers. The war destroyed the Concert of Europe by ending cooperation between Russia and Austria. Charge of the Light Brigade The Thin Red Line

III. National Unification & the Nation StatePreview • Italian Unification • German Unification • Pgs. 379 - 381

III. National Unification & the Nation StateB. Italian Unification • After the failed revolutions of 1848, Austria was still the dominant power in Italy. Those who sought Italian unification looked to King Victor Emmanuel II of the Piedmont for leadership. • Camillo di Cavour, prime minister of the Piedmont from 1852, increased government revenues and equipped a large standing army. He also made an alliance with Louis-Napoleon of France. • In 1859, Cavour taunted Austria into invading the Piedmont. After the ensuing war, Piedmont gained control of Lombardy from Austria, France gained territory in Nice and Savoy, and other Italian states (Parma, Modena, Tuscany) joined an alliance with Piedmont. Victor Emmanuel II

III. National Unification & the Nation StateB. Italian Unification • At the same time, an Italian patriot named Giuseppe Garibaldi raised a volunteer army of 1000, known as the Red Shirts, to fight for Italian unification. • A revolt broke out in the Kingdom of the Two Siciliesagainst the Bourbon king. Garibaldi’s small force landed in Sicily and managed to defeat the royalist forces. He then invaded the mainland and conquered Naples. • On March 17, 1861, Garibaldi ceded the territory he had conquered to Piedmont, creating a new Italian kingdom under Victor Emmanuel II. • In 1866, Italy allied itself with Prussia in the Austro-Prussian War and gained control of Venetia. In the Franco-Prussian War of 1870, French troops abandoned Rome, leaving the Papal States undefended from an Italian invasion. Rome became the new capital of a unified Italy. Camillo di Cavour Giuseppe Garibaldi

III. National Unification & the Nation StateC. German Unification • After the failure of the Frankfurt Assembly, Prussia emerged as the leader of German unification. Prussia was a powerful, prosperous state with an authoritarian government. • Militarism (solving problems through force) was strong in Prussia.When King William I wanted to expand the army in the 1860s and the legislature refused, he appointed Otto von Bismarck as prime minister. • Bismarck was a practitioner of Realpolitik– politics based on practical concerns rather than ethics. He ran Prussia without consulting parliament, expanding the army as he saw fit. • Prussia defeated Denmark in 1864, gaining the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein. In 1866, they turned on Austria and humiliated the Imperial army in the Austro-Prussian War. Otto von Bismarck

III. National Unification & the Nation StateC. German Unification • By 1866, Prussia was the premier military power in Europe. This allowed Bismarck to create the North German Confederation of all states north of the Rhine. Catholic southern Germany feared the Protestant north, but they were more afraid of France, so they entered into a military alliance with Prussia. • In 1870, a dispute over the throne of Spain caused France to declare war on Prussia. The southern German states honored their alliance. Superior Prussian leadership and armaments overwhelmed the French. At the Battle of Sedan (Sept. 2, 1870), Louis-Napoleon was captured and forced to sue for peace. The Franco-Prussian War was a disaster for France. They were forced to give up Alsace and Lorraine, and pay five billion francs to Prussia. • On January 18, 1871, in Versailles, Bismarck and the princes of Germany proclaimed William I to be Kaiser of the Second German Empire. The Prussian army had unified the nation. Militarism and bureaucracy would make Germany the most powerful state in mainland Europe. Surrender at Sedan Kaiser William I

III. National Unification & the Nation StatePreview • Nationalism and Reform in Europe • Great Britain • France • Pgs. 382 - 383

II. Reaction and RevolutionHomework • Answer each question in a half-page response with complete sentences. Be accurate, be specific, be complete. Due tomorrow. • 1. How did liberalism and nationalism begin to break through the conservative domination of Europe? • 2. What countries experienced revolutions in 1848? • 3. How did the Crimean War destroy the Concert of Europe?

III. National Unification & the Nation StateD. Nationalism and Reform in Europe • In the 1860s and 70s, Italy and Germany had achieved unification. Neither new country was particularly liberal, but both were avowedly nationalist. • During the same time period, other European nations went through dramatic changes. The great powers all experienced challenges to the established order in some form. Napoleon III Queen Victoria

III. National Unification & the Nation StateE. Great Britain • Great Britain avoided the social upheavals of 1830 and 1848 by enacting liberal reforms. During this period, voting rights were extended to include the industrial middle class, which preempted their participation in any uprisings. • Economic growth also contributed to stability. The huge gains of the Industrial Revolution finally began to improve the lives of the industrial working class by 1850. Wages rose by 25% by 1870. • British society was dominated by the personality of Queen Victoria (reigned 1837 – 1901). The values of duty and morality permeated every level of British society and defined the Victorian Age. Victoria Regis The royal family

III. National Unification & the Nation StateF. France • In 1852, Louis-Napoleon held a plebiscite to see if the people of the French Republic wanted to bring back the Empire. 97% of the population voted “yes.” The president thus became Emperor Napoleon III. • Napoleon III was an authoritarian ruler. He personally controlled every aspect of the government and armed forces. The Legislative Corps was a meaningless symbol. • The first five years of the Second Empire were very successful. The emperor subsidized industry and expanded the economy. The city of Paris was modernized, including wider streets and gas lights. • Faced with criticism in the 1860s, Napoleon III enacted some liberal reforms. His title was renewed by plebiscite in 1870, but the disaster of the Franco-Prussian War led to his abdication the following year. Napoleon III Paris boulevards

Ch. 12: Industrialization and Nationalism, 1800 - 1870