Age of Nationalism Events of the Late Nineteenth Century

1. Age of NationalismEvents of the Late Nineteenth Century AKA: La Belle Epoch, Age of “Mass Society” and Age of Optimism and Despair Chapters 25 and 26

2. What happened by 1850 (or so)? • “Continental” industrialization came of age • Britain still led in the production of iron and manufacturing • Markets expanded with the opening of waterways • Trade treaties in the 1860’s eliminated tolls on major river systems (Danube, Rhine) • Suez Canal linked the Mediterranean with the Indian Ocean • Germany had established the “zolvereign” • The ideas of Marx and Engels had been absorbed by many French and British trade unionists who created the “First International”, a working-class movement organized along socialist lines

3. (slide 3 continued) • Advances in science include thermodynamics, the periodic table and advances in electromagnetic induction (precursor to electricity) • Increasing secularism, as evident in the movement known as “materialism” • Charles Darwin wrote On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection and The Decent of Man • Louis Pasteur experimented with germs, Joseph Lister developed antiseptics and chloroform helped in surgical operations • Medical schools developed, many eventually accepting women • A shift from Romanticism to Realism • “Mass Society” emerged

4. I Almost Forgot… • The rise of Imperialism

5. The Growth of Prosperity – Age of Optimism • New industries, new goods, new sources of energy and new prosperity led Europeans to believe that technology and science could solve all human problems • The new urban and industrial world created changes that led to a new mass society, which meant improvements in the standard of living for the lower classes. • New work patterns established the “weekend” and more time for leisure activities, including sports and amusement parks where social classes intermingled

6. (slide 5 continued) • Mass society saw the role of government change as it became more involved in public health and housing issues, especially in the cities • Democracy expanded the right to vote to all adult males, though women will still continue to fight for political rights

7. Improved Standard of Living • Wages on average will almost double in the late 19th century • However, poverty will exist and there was a growing gap between rich and poor • Wealthy elite made up 5% of the population and controlled 40-50% of its wealth

8. Lower Classes • Made up 80% of the population • Many are landowning peasants, laborers and sharecroppers, more so in Eastern than Western Europe • Peasants came into contact with other classes as a result of military conscription. New public elementary schools forced children to learn national loyalties and the national language • Urban working class included skilled, semiskilled and unskilled laborers. Unskilled laborers make up the bottom of the lower class • Improvements in wages, a decrease in product costs and improved cities helped improve the conditions of the working classes. They could now afford other items besides just food, and they had more leisure time as a result of collective bargaining for better wages and hours

9. “The Woman Question” • Used to describe the debate on the role of women, society tried to answer the question on whether women should work outside of the home • Women remained legally inferior, economically dependent, and defined by domestic roles; a traditional characterization of women which was due to industrialization, and still persists today • The practice of having the man go out of the home to work with pay and women playing a domestic role with no pay (“separate spheres”) was rare among working lower classes

10. Marriage and Family • Marriage was seen as the only honorable profession available to women • Middle class values glorified domesticity • For most women, marriage was an economic necessity. Lack of meaningful, well-paid work for women gave them little choice in the matter • Birthrates, which had grown up to 1870, dropped significantly. Causes include: • Development of new birth control methods • Too a large degree – attitudes changed. More information about birth control became available, despite persecution • Despite persecution, family planning was encouraged to help reduce poverty in the lower classes, however it was also practiced by middle class families

11. Migration • Encouraged by: • Population pressure (fewer deaths again due to urban improvements and science) • Opening economic and social opportunities abroad • Cheaper land abroad • Minority persecution (Jews and others that did not meet the new “national ideal”)

12. Who Moved and Where Did They Go? • Who: • Most often a small peasant landowner or village craftsman losing business to large industry • Skilled, technical workers • those in the minority • Where: • U.S., Russia, Canada, Argentina, Brazil, Australia, New Zealand

13. White Man’s Burden • European ethnocentric attitudes encouraged by Social Darwinism (survival of the fittest) • Created the “need” to “civilize” the barbarians and convert them to Christianity

14. Imperialism in Africa (go to slide 46) • The vast interior of Africa held little European interest prior to this period (why?) • Between 1807 and 1820, most Europeans abolished the slave trade (does that mean no slavery at all? Also – why now?) • As slave trade ends, Europeans turn their greedy eyes to the second most valuable resource from Africa – the land itself (ironic, isn’t it?)

15. South Africa: Gold, Diamonds and… a British Crown? • Prior to the 1860’s, Africa used mainly for shipping and military reasons (coastal presence) • 1795 – British seized Cape Town from the South African Dutch (aka, Boers or Afrikaners) who trek northeast into the interior • Boer War (1899-1902) was fought after they (the Dutch) discover diamonds and gold. The British won and establish a colony in which only white males could vote • Educated South Africans organize the “African National Congress” (sound familiar?)

16. Another Part of Africa: Egypt • Muhammed Ali (not the same guy) defeated the French and the Ottomans in 1805, though technically still part of the Ottoman Empire • Ali industrialized Egypt and expanded agriculture toward cotton (why cotton?) • Subsequent rulers worked with the French and completed the Suez Canal in 1869 (what two bodies of water were linked?)

17. Egypt: The New British Colony Wait – weren’t we just talking about Egypt and the French?

18. Where Did the French Go? To other parts of North Africa, particularly Nigeria, along with a newly-unified Italy

19. Africa: Divide and Conquer • 1884 – Otto von Bismarck hosted a conference in Berlin and Europeans set up colonization rights and boundaries in Africa • Within 3 decades, almost all of Africa was colonized by European countries (Which ones? Take a guess, you’re probably right)

20. Wait, There's More… • Boundary lines not drawn according to African history – disputes further encourage disunity among Africans • Traditional African culture fell into decline as European schools, missionaries and western business practices supplanted it

21. Consequences • Europeans built roads, canals, railroads, dams • Africa stripped of natural resources • Natives treated harshly • Direct rule over colonies exercised by all Europeans except Britain, who allowed local self-rule (similar to Roman Empire)

22. Compare: European Colonialism in • Africa • America

23. Imperialism in India • Mughal Empire – Are they still in power? • 1750’s - British East India Company, under Robert Clive, will defeat the French in India and gain control of India over the next 100 years (what’s wrong with this picture?) • Sepoy Mutiny: Too little, too late • 1858 – British Parliament steps in, exiles the last Mughal ruler • Queen Victoria – Empress of India

24. India: Model of British Imperialism • Late 1800’s – raw materials flowed to Britain, manufactured goods flowed back to India (sound familiar?) • Railroads and canals built • Upper castes taught English and English customs, Christianity spreads

25. Indian National Congress • 1885 – Well-educated Indians who dreamed of freeing India from British rule. • It would take 2 World Wars before the dream is realized (more on that in “Period 5”) • *Note – educated folks less likely to accept “subjugation”

26. Imperialism in China • Up until now, what was China’s relationship with the West? • In the 1830’s the relationship will change as the British “force their right to deal” (deal what? Drugs, of course!) • 1839-1842 first “Opium War” (guess who wins?)

27. Treaty of Nanjing: More Opium, More Addicts • 1842 - First of “unequal treaties” – Britain allowed expanded trading rights • 1843 - Hong Kong declared a “crown possession” of Britain • 1844 – Christian missionaries allowed back in China

28. More War • Second Opium War, 1856-1860 – Occurred after China refused British rights to expand opium trade – China humiliated • White Lotus Rebellion and Taiping Rebellion caused decay internally • China – now considered an easy target, so that means…

29. Even More War • 1876 – Korea declares independence • 1883 – Sino-French War – China loses Vietnam to the French (subsequently named “French Indochina”) • 1895 – Sino-Japanese War ended with Japanese control of Taiwan and trading rights (note: Japan also takes over Korea) • France, Germany, Russia, Britain create “spheres of influence”

30. What’s the Difference Between Establishing a Colony and a “Sphere of Influence?” (By the way, where is the U.S. in all of this? I’m glad you asked….)

31. Boxer Rebellion – Knocked Out in the First Round • “Society of Righteous and Harmonious Fists” • Anti- Manchu, anti-Europeans and anti- Christians (guerilla warfare used to slaughter many of them) • Rebellion failed - China forced to sign the “Boxer Protocol” which forced China to pay for the costs of the rebellion and apologize

32. Contrast: European Imperialism in • China • India

33. Chinese Culture Crumbles • 1901 – footbinding abolished • 1905 – Civil Service Exam was eliminated • 1911 - Sun Yat-sen toppled the government and established a republic (more on that in the next period beginning in the year 1914)

34. Japanese Imperialism (far cry from isolationism) • 1853 – Commodore Matthew Perry arrived on a steamboat to Japan (big deal?) • 1854 Treaty of Kanawaga signed (big deal?) • Meiji Restoration ushers in Japanese westernization

35. Consequences • By 1870 – Japan builds railways and steamships • By 1876 – Samurai class out, conscription in • By 1890’s – Maintained trade on equal footing with western powers • 1895 – defeated China for control of Korea and Taiwan • 1904 - Russo-Japanese War, kicked Russia out of Manchuria • (Can anyone say “Imperial Power”? How about “World Power”?)

36. Compare • IR in Europe • IR in Japan

37. Politically Speaking… Age of Optimism and Despair

38. Early and Late 19th Century: A Comparison • 1800-1850 • Reform was limited • Revolutions of 1848 had failed • Liberalism and nationalism defeated as conservative, authoritarian governments prevailed • Conservative agenda upheld by the “Concert of Europe” • After 1850 • Some conservative leaders found a way to manipulate liberal and national ideologies to increase their power, practicing a new ideology known as “Realpolitik” • The Concert of Europe will disintegrate • Germany and Italy will unify, with major consequences to come

39. Before: Map – p. 679 Note: Italy, German Confederation (includes parts of Austria and Prussia), Ottoman Empire, Greece, Russia,

40. After: p. 839

41. France • Napoleon III – came to power after the failure of the “Bourgeoisie government” of Louise Philippe • Won support of the people, created the “Second republic”, and when denied the right to be re-elected he seized the government, gave universal male suffrage, and won a series of plebiscites to gain the title of emperor • As such, he controlled the military, police and civil service. He alone could introduce legislation, control the budget and declare war

42. Domestic Policies of Napoleon III • Domestic Agenda • Government subsidies for growth in industry and transportation • Free hospitals and medicine • Better housing for working class • “Modern” Paris with sewage, public water, gas lights and wide roads (aesthetic and military purpose) APE p. 794 • Liberalized industry by allowing for labor unions and the right to strike • Liberalized government by giving free speech to opponents and a voice to the Legislative Corps • Results • Major French railway lines completed • Tripling of iron production signaled industrial growth • Reduction of social tensions • By 1870 had the total support of the people • Successful domestic policies will be eventually outweighed by foreign failures, and lead to Napoleon's decline

43. Republican France • The defeat of the French in the Franco-Prussian War brought the downfall of Napoleon’s second empire, and a republican provisional government was formed • However when Bismarck got involved and forced the French to chose a government by universal male suffrage, they chose monarch rule. In response, radical republicans created an independent government, the Paris Commune. • When the government decided to crush the commune, working class people, including women, fought fiercely to defend it. When the commune was defeated, supporters were sent to penal colonies, establishing a legacy of hatred between the Middle and Working classes • The monarchists, in an ironic turn, set up a government with a two-house legislature (one house elected by universal male suffrage) and a president

44. Unification of Italy – The Beginning • Austria was dominant in Italy, especially after the revolts of 1848 failed. However, nationalists were not deterred • When Victor Emmanuel replaced Charles Albert as King of Piedmont-Sardinia, he appointed Count Camillo di Cavour to be his Prime Minister • Cavour was a wealthy, liberal-minded aristocrat who favored constitutional government • Like Napoleon III, he pursued a successful policy of expansion of industry and transportation by expanding credit for investment. The money raised built a strong army • Learning from the Revolution of 1848, he realized he would need the help of France to achieve Italian Unification

45. North and Central Italy • Cavour promised the French the provinces of Nice and Savoy, and the hand of the King’s daughter to Napoleons cousin, who would be named King of Central Italy • France took charge in defeating the Austrians, and Napoleon made a hasty peace without the consent of Italy (or control of Venetia) which angered Cavour • Soon after, “Central Italy” had been taken over by nationalists who held a plebiscite in which they agreed to unify with Peidmont • Napoleon agreed to the unification, in return for Savoy and Nice

46. Southern Italy • While events were happening in northern Italy, Giuseppe Garibaldi and the “Red Shirts” revolted against the Bourbon king of the “Two Sicilies”, marching up the Italian peninsula toward Rome • Fearing a French retaliation (and loss of power), Cavour sent in his troops to protect Rome • Choosing against civil war, Garibaldi chose not to invade. Eventual plebiscites in both the Papal States and Two Sicilies led to the union with Piedmont.

47. Final Unification • 1861 – The Kingdom of Italy was established with Victor Emmanuel as King • Rome (French control) and Venetia (Austrian control) will still out of reach. • In the Austro-Prussian and Franco-Prussian wars, Italy was on the side of the victor and won control of Rome and Venetia. Rome eventually became the capital of Italy

48. See Map and Cartoon – p. 694 and 695

49. Italy • Unification brought little “unification”: • Italian loyalty usually rested with the family and local regions, not the new state • There were differences between the poverty-stricken south and the industrialist north (who made up the leadership majority) • The Catholic Church resented loss of the Papal States to the state and did not recognize the unification of Italy • Turmoil between workers and industrialists persisted • Reform in suffrage allowed for a whopping 10% of the population to vote (up from 2.5%) • Lack of dominant parties and corruption allowed for little stability in government

50. Unification of Germany • After unification failed in 1848-49, nationalists looked to Austria and Prussia • While Austria controlled the “German Confederation”, Prussia controlled the Zollverein (customs union) of which Austria was not a part • Middle-class liberals looked to Prussia to lead unification