By Kristen Lukaszak

By Kristen Lukaszak Energy Law, Spring 2007 kristen.lukaszak@gmail.com

H2 Hydrogen Power: Independence From OPEC and Our Rising Global Temperature

Hydrogen • The first element on the periodic table • The lightest, most explosive and most abundant element on Earth • These characteristics make it useful for lifting and as an explosive i.e. the Hydrogen Bomb

Hydrogen Power • When hydrogen is used as an energy source, the only byproducts are water and heat • Hydrogen is a renewable energy source • Once obtained, hydrogen can power virtually everything new powered by fossil fuels

Hydrogen as Oil’s Competitor • Estimates of cost for hydrogen production that are competitive with oil, are based on use of solar dish gensets • This method uses a relatively small area of land to provide all of the United States’ energy requirements • Hydrogen is actually more powerful than gasoline: liquid hydrogen has a BTU (British Thermal Unit) of 60,000 per pound, where gasoline only has 18,000 per pound

NASA and Hydrogen • NASA has used hydrogen as rocket fuel since the 1940’s • Primary fuel while in space and for making drinking water • 1 pound H + O = 9 pounds water • This process generates a byproduct of usable electricity

Fuel Cells: Hydrogen in Action • Invented in 1839 by Sir William Grove • Generate electrical power quietly and efficiently, without pollution • Only byproducts are heat and water, unlike fossil fuels • A fuel cell is an electrochemical conversion device: H2 + O2 = water and electricity

Fuel Cells v. Batteries • An electrochemical device we are more familiar with is the battery- chemicals inside • Fuel cell: H2 and O2 constantly flow into the cell so it never goes dead • Used to power motors and a number of electrical appliances

Types of Fuel Cells • Polymer Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell • Solid Oxide Fuel Cell • Alkaline Fuel Cell • Molten-Carbonate Fuel Cell • Phosphoric-Acid Fuel Cell • Direct-Methanol Fuel Cell

Polymer Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell (PEMFC) • Department of Energy (DOE) is focusing on the PEMFC for transportation applications • Has a high power density • Relatively low operating temperature ((140-176 F)

Solid Oxide Fuel Cell • Large scale power generators, for factories or towns • Operate at a very high temperature- • Stable, with a long operating life, when they are in continuous use • Steam produced from the high heat can used to create more electricity • “Co-generation of heat and power” ->improves the overall efficiency of the system

Alkaline Fuel Cell • One of the oldest designs for fuel cells • US Space Program has used them since the 1960’s • Very susceptible to contamination, so this cell requires pure hydrogen and oxygen • Very expensive and so unlikely to be commercialized

Molten-Carbonate Fuel Cell • Best suited for large stationary power generators • Operate at 600 degrees Celsius, so they can produce steam to generate more power • Less expensive than SOFC because it doesn’t require as rare of materials

Phosphoric-Acid Fuel Cell • Can be used in small stationary power generators • Higher operating temperature than PEMFC • This means it has a longer warm- up time, making its use unsuitable for cars

Direct-Methanol Fuel Cell • Similar to PEMFC in operating temperature • Not as efficient • Requires a relatively large amount of platinum to act as a catalyst • This requirement makes these fuel cells expensive

DOE and the PEMFC • The PEMFC is what the DOE plans to use to power vehicles • Uses one of the simplest reactions of any fuel cell • PEMFC consists of : 1) anode 2) cathode 3) electrolyte 4) catalyst

PEMFC components • Anode: the negative post and conductor of the electrons into an external circuit • Cathode: the positive post and the conductor of the electrons from the external circuit back into the cell • Electrolyte: the proton exchange membrane which conducts only positively charged ions and blocks electrons (must be hydrated to function and remain stable) • Catalyst: special material that facilitates the reaction of hydrogen and oxygen and is usually made of platinum nanoparticles

How the PEMFC works • H2 gas forced into the anode, platinum catalyst splits it into two positive ions and two electrons; • Electrons are then conducted to the external circuit– ** work step** • Electrons return into the cell through the cathode • Electrons bond with O2 and H+ to form H2O

Power of a Fuel Cell • The reaction in a single fuel cell produces only 0.7 volts • To bring the voltage up to a reasonable level, many separate fuel cells must be combined to form a fuel cell stack • Bipolar plates are used to connect one fuel cell to another

Efficiency of Vehicles Powered by Fuel Cells • Potential to be 80% efficient- electrical energy (pure hydrogen) • Electrical energy converted into mechanical energy-> also 80% efficient • Overall efficiency of a vehicle powered by a fuel cells is roughly 64%

Efficiency, cont’d. • If hydrogen is not pure, car needs reformer • Lowers efficiency • DOE has focused on vehicles using pure hydrogen • Challenges production and storage • Compared to a gasoline-powered vehicle, a fuel cell car is far more efficient • Efficiency level of a gasoline-powered vehicle roughly 20%

Issues and Problems One Major Issue is Safety: 1. legislators will have to create new processes for people to follow when they must handle an incident involving a fuel cell vehicle or generator 2. Engineers will have to design safe, reliable hydrogen delivery systems (i.e. fueling stations)

Cost • Expensive: proton exchange systems, precious metal catalysts, gas diffusion layers and bipolar plates • To be priced competitively, fuel cell systems must cost $35/kW • Currently, high volume production is at $110/kW • One way to lower cost -> reduce need for platinum or find an alternative

Durability • Cell membranes must be durable and function at extreme temperatures • cars start and stop frequently - important for membranes to remain stable under cycling temperatures • The membranes used now tend to degrade when fuel cells are turned on and off

Hydration • Membranes need to stay hydrated to function • This requirement poses a problem at sub-zero temperatures, high temperatures and in environments of low- humidity

Infrastructure • Must be hydrogen generation and delivery infrastructure • Includes production plants, pipelines and truck transport, and fueling stations • The DOE hopes that the development of a marketable fuel cell vehicle will drive the development of an infrastructure to support it

Hydrogen Production • Methods for hydrogen production are currently not cost-effective for bulk production • Various methods: some clean, others not • Issues regarding hydrogen production involve cost, emission free methods, and renewable technologies

Methods of Hydrogen Production • Fossil Fuel Based Hydrogen Production • Steam Reforming of Natural Gas • Water-Based Hydrogen Production: Electrolysis, Photoelectrolysis, Photobiological • Other Methods of Hydrogen Generation: Biomass Gasification and Pyrolysis

Fossil Fuel Based Hydrogen Production • Produced from coal, gasoline, methanol and natural gas • The fossil fuel that has the best hydrogen to carbon ration is natural gas or methane- CH4

Steam Reforming of Natural Gas • Steam reforming of natural gas involves 2 steps • 1st Step: Expose natural gas to high temperature steam • 2nd Step: Expose carbon monoxide to high temperature steam • The resulting hydrogen and carbon dioxide is sequestered and stored in tanks • Most commonly used method

Issues with Natural Gas in Hydrogen Production • Not emission free • The cost of natural gas has tripled in recent years • Will have to rely on imports to supply the natural gas • Natural gas is not renewable

Reformers: Natural Gas and Gasoline • Reformers: technologies within a fuel cell vehicle that convert the fossil fuel into hydrogen, so the hydrogen can then enter the fuel cell • Natural Gas: reformer usually a smaller variation of steam reforming of natural gas • Gasoline: the efficiency f these has not been satisfactory and the DOE has ceased funding research in this are

Electrolysis • Using electricity to split water into its constituent elements • This is accomplished by passing an electric current through water • Produces very pure hydrogen (used in the electronics, pharmaceutical, and food industries) • Very expensive, relative to steam reformation due to the electrical input • However, when coupled with a renewable energy source (for the electrical input) electrolysis can provide a completely clean and renewable source of energy

Photoelectrolysis • The direct conversion of sunlight into electricity • A photoelectrolyzer is placed in water and, when exposed to sunlight, begins to generate hydrogen • The photovoltaics and the semiconductor power the electrolyzer by generating electricity from the sunlight • Hydrogen is then collected and stored

Biomass Gasification and Pyrolysis • Biomass is first converted into a gas through high-temperature gasifying, resulting in a vapor • The vapor condensed into oils, which are steam reformed to generate hydrogen • The feedstock can consist of woodchips, plant material, and agricultural and municipal wastes • When biological waste is used as a feedstock-completely renewable, sustainable method of hydrogen generation

Research for Future Production Methods • The DOE has set a goal for 2015: to have ready to operate a zero-emissions, high-efficiency co-production power plant that will produce hydrogen from coal along with electricity • Technology: partial oxidation of coal • Among other necessary improvements, the technology requires advancements in carbon dioxide capture and sequestration to be cleaner and emission-free

Hydrogen Storage • Hydrogen storage is the main technological problem with the hydrogen economy • Due to its poor energy density per volume (although it has good energy density per weight), hydrogen requires a large storage tank • If the tank is the same size, more hydrogen will be compressed into the tank making it heaver AND losing energy to the compression step

Liquid Hydrogen • An alternative is to store hydrogen in its liquid state • Liquid hydrogen’s boiling point of -423.1888 degrees F • Low Temperature -> high energy loss • The tanks must be well-insulated to prevent boil-off • Ice may form around the tank and corrode it further if the insulation fails • Such insulation is usually expensive and delicate

Ammonia Storage • Provides high storage densities in its liquid form, with mild pressurization and temperature restraints • In its liquid form, it can be stored at room temperature and pressure when mixed with water • A large infrastructure for making, transporting and distributing ammonia already exists

Ammonia Storage, cont’d. No harmful waste • It can be mixed with existing fuels and burn efficiently • Under compression, it is a suitable fuel for slightly modified gasoline engines • Problems: Very expensive to make, the existing infrastructure would have to be greatly enlarged, toxic at normal temperature and pressure

Prospects for Hydrogen Storage • Technical University of Denmark: method of storing hydrogen in the form of ammonia saturated into a salt tablet, claims it will be safe and inexpensive • Proposals to use metal hydrides and synthesized hydrocarbons as hydrogen carriers r • Hydrides pose safety issues and hydrocarbons require a reformer which adds another cost

Why Hydrogen? • Because of the problems associated with our present-day fossil fuel economy: 1. Economic Insecurity: America imports 55% of it oil and prices will rise in the future 2. National Safety: America’s oil dependency compromises the safety of the nation, as many of the oil-producing nations are politically unstable or hostile 3. Pollution and Global Warming: In the last century, the air temperature near the earth’s surface has raised approximately 1.3 degrees F; predictions of an increase from anywhere between 2 and 11.5 degrees F by the year 2100

The Hydrogen Economy • Attractive solution • Relieve dependency on climbing petroleum prices • Eliminate the US’s dependency on foreign countries for oil • Emission free and, combined with clean hydrogen production, is a renewable and clean energy source • Distributed production: hydrogen production is not limited to certain parts of the world

Moving Toward a Hydrogen Economy • February 2003, President Bush’s Hydrogen Fuel Initiative to develop domestic energy sources • $1.2 billion was designated to development of clean hydrogen production and commercially viable fuel cell powered vehicles • Established the US as the international leader in hydrogen and fuel cell research • The 2005 Budget: $228 million for the Hydrogen Fuel Initiative and a 43% increase from 2004 for funding to develop H2 technology

Energy Policy Act of 2005 • Signed into law on August 8, 2005 • The Act’s provisions: 1. loan guarantees for ‘innovative technologies’ such as renewable energy like hydrogen 2. authorizes subsidies for alternative energy sources 3. provides tax breaks to those making energy conservation improvements 4. authorizes $1.25 billion for the DOE to build a nuclear reactor to generate both electricity and hydrogen

What the Act Doesn’t Say… • An authorization to spend means nothing until there is an actual appropriation • A provision of the bill that did not survive to the enacted legislation was a provision requiring increased reliance on non-greenhouse gas-emitting energy sources (i.e. hydrogen), much like a requirement of the Kyoto Protocol

The US and the Kyoto Protocol • US was not a party to the Kyoto Protocol • Alienates the US from the global movement for clean energy • Our ability to cultivate a hydrogen economy independently doesn’t obliterate all obligations to the international community • Research and development of hydrogen technology is a world-wide effort with a global impact • Kyoto Protocol provides a mechanism for developed nations to “buy” emissions credits from developing nations • Clean energy is on a global scale economically

Progress or Pretext? • Speculation that the domestic legislation regarding clean energy is merely pretextual, particularly due to the Act of 2005’s non-binding nature • Does the Act really just offer a tax break to the oil companies? • To become independent from OPEC, must be independent from petroleum and cooperate with other nations with the same goals

But There is Hope (Even With the Bush Administration)... • Since 2001, the Bush Administration has spent nearly $10 billion to develop cleaner and more reliable energy sources • The President’s Advanced Energy Initiative provides for a 22% increase in funding for clean technology research at the DOE, specifically the use of fuel cells using hydrogen from domestic feedstocks

International Cooperation • Common interest among several nations to reduce the need for fossil fuels • The International Energy Agency (IEA) was established in 1974 to implement an international energy program • The IEA seeks to develop and integrate alternative energy sources • In 1977, the IEA established the Hydrogen Implementing Agreement to promote international cooperation on research and development of hydrogen technologies

By Kristen Lukaszak