Imperialism and Revolutionary Upheavals

1. Imperialism and Revolutionary Upheavals • 19th century, weakened Qing Dynasty victimized by imperialist nations • Carved China into ‘spheres of influence’ • 2 major revolutions – 1911 and 1949 • revolutionary era dominated by 3 themes: • nationalism: re-establish China as an independent, sovereign nation • new political community: competition between Nationalist Party [Chiang Kai-shek] [Kuomintang] and The CCP [Mao] • socioeconomic development:followed Soviet model until split in 1928, CCP driven underground

2. failed revolution: Sun Yat-sen (1866-1925) • multiple military coup attempts • 1905, KMT established • 10/10/11: rebellion in Wuhan spread peacefully throughout the country, establishment of PRC • central government nominally under control of KMT, but country run by warlords • 1919: Treaty of Versailles: German concessions transferred to other Allied powers, not to China • May Fourth Movement • student run • politicized but disorganized

3. 1921: formation of CCP • headed by Chen Duxiu, composed of intellectuals, quickly dominated by Moscow • KMT also sought approval of Soviets • KMT and CCP briefly merged – ‘united front’ • growing conflict erupted in violence in Shanghai, 1927 • massacre of thousands of CCP members by Nationalist troops

4. Mao: revolution could only be based on mass mobilization • China’s population overwhelmingly rural • KMT controlled most cities • only path was guerilla war from the countryside, not spontaneous uprising in cities • it would take years to organize a peasant revolution • Autumn Harvest Uprising: Mao launched attacks on Changsa • KMT campaign to exterminate the ‘communist bandits’

5. The Long March • for almost a year, CCP fought daily against KMT or local warlords • costly but lasting success for CCP • party used time to organize • built relationships with peasants • January, 1936: Mao elected Chairman of CCP

6. The Mass Line • Mao and CCP rejected: • urban proletariat • vanguard of the revolution • all correct leadership is “from the masses, to the masses” • turned Marxism into a philosophy that could appeal to millions of peasants in Asia, Africa, and Latin America

7. resistance to Japanese imperialist aggression • invasion of Manchuria, 1931 • control of northern China by 1935 • Chiang Kai-shek retreated to the south, while CCP fought the invaders • resistance expanded its base of support • message: nationalism, anti-imperialism, social justice

8. initial superiority of KMT forces eventually overcome by CCP • CCP army regained control of Manchuria, moved south, forced KMT to flee to Taiwan • 1949: creation of People’s Republic of China • Mao: China’s weakness due to oppression and exploitation by • foreign imperialism • reactionary domestic government • “China has stood up.”

9. Factionalism • PRC: 30 years to establish stability and continuity • interim conflict between radicals and moderates • struggle for ideological dominance involved • attacks on party and state institutions • personalization of power • eventual predominance of moderates put China on a lasting path to reform

10. The People’s Republic of China • 2 phases • (1) The Soviet Model (1949-1957) • land redistribution • civil reform • 5-year plans • (2) The Great Leap Forward (1958-1966) • radical egalitarianism • economic development • mass mobilization • political unanimity • decentralization

11. world communist movement: • North Korean conflict: Chinese had no choice but to support fellow communists in North Korea • relied on Soviet military aid to repel UN forces

12. Sino-Soviet Split • divergence from Soviet model and philosophy • CCP depended on cult of personality • Mao criticized SU’s movement away from Marxist goals • SU eventually withdrew its advisers and cut off economic and military aid • split gave CCP autonomy to develop in its own way

13. factionalism: Maoists vs. Marxists • campaigns: organized efforts to mobilize the masses to attain various goals • Hundred Flowers Campaign, 1956 : encouraged expression of ideas • ‘success’ of campaign required immediate end • Great Leap Forward: opposite direction • sought rapid transition to socialism and communism • required full commitment of all Chinese people • “red-vs.-expert” conflict : ideology vs. technology • a disaster – mass starvation

14. failure of Great Leap forward undermined Mao’s authority • forced from chair of PRC • challenge to his authority precipitated the Cultural Revolution • why? • Mao had been the architect of the popular revolution • CCP becoming increasingly bureaucratized, rigid and elite • new generation had not experienced the revolution- “self-satisfied and flabby”

15. The Cultural Revolution • 1963: with support of the PLA, Mao launched the Socialist Education Movement • ideology and mobilization once again center stage • launched frontal attack on Party leadership and bureaucracy • Red Guards: student groups turned into revolutionaries/vigilantes • “seizures of power” throughout the country

16. The Cultural Revolution • Mao’s goal: purify the party and the state • remove all vestiges of old China (bureaucratic, hierarchical) • scholars sent to the fields, universities/libraries destroyed • Extremely disruptive and regressive • Mao’s death, 1976, left factions • the “Gang of Four” • the military • the Moderates: Zhou Enlai • process of fang-shou: cycle of tightening up, loosening up

17. Modernization, 1978-1997: Deng Xiaoping • “Four Modernizations” • industry, agriculture, science, military • Have continues at heart of China’s official policy ever since • economic liberalization • “open door” trade policy • educational reform • institutionalization of the Revolution • Deng did not support political liberalization

18. Citizens, Society and the State • Profound changes in relationship of citizen to Chinese state as leadership has changed since Mao • For most citizens, communist ideology no longer central to their lives • CCP now emphasizes nationalism, patriotism, pride in Chinese identity

19. cleavages • minority populations within China: 8% of population, 60% of territory • general government policy: encourage economic development, suppress dissent • 5 autonomous regions: Guangxi, Inner Mongolia, Ningxia, Tibet and Xinjiang • Tibet: failed uprising 1959, continuing tension • Xinjiang: Uyghur militants seek to create a separate Islamic state

20. cleavages, cont. • linguistic: CCP has always tried to make Mandarin the official language of government and education, but dialects remain embedded in Chinese society • urban-rural: most economic growth has been concentrated in cities – new meaning to “2 Chinas” • talk of new programs to lift the lagging rural economy