Teori-teori Pembangunan Sumber Manusia

1. Teori-teori Pembangunan Sumber Manusia

2. Grid Penguruan Blake dan Mouton Sistem Likert Teori Z Ouchi Teori Argyris

3. Grid Pengurusan Blake dan Mouton Teori ini diperkenalkan pada 1964 bertujuan menerangkan huraian gaya kepimpinan pengurus untuk tujuan meningkatkan kecekapan dan keberkesanan organisasi. Pengurus yang efisyen: • Tumpu kepada pekerja (Teori Hubungan Kemanusiaan) • Tumpu kepada produktiviti (Teori Pengurusan Klasikal dan Saintifik)

4. Grid Pengurusan Blake dan Mouton Grid kepimpinan utk menerangkan gaya kepimpinan. LIMA jenis gaya pengurusan: • Pengurusan Lemah (Impoverished Management) • Pengurusan Kelab Riadah (Country Club Management) • Authority-Compliance • Pengurusan Pasukan (Team Management) • Pengurusan Pertengahan (Mid-of-the-Road Management)

5. The New Managerial Grid Insert Figure 2.2

6. Blake and Mouton’s Managerial Grid • Authority Compliance (9,1) • Classical theory • Country Club (1,9) • Informal grapevine • Impoverished (1,1) • Laissez-faire • Middle-of-the-Road (5,5) • Compromise (carrot & stick) • Team (9,9) • Human Resources Approach • Promote the conditions that integrate creativity, high productivity, and high morale through concerted team action

7. Likert’s System of Management • Exploitive Autocratic • Benevolent Autocratic • Consultative • Participative Team

8. Perbezaan keempat-empat sistem ada dari aspek motivasi, komunikasi, pembuatan keputusan, penyediaan maklumat, kawalan, struktur pengaruh dan persepsi. • Kajian Likert mendapati kebanyakan organisasi mengamalkan sistem 4 ( Pembabitan Organisasi/ Participative Team) • Ciri-ciri sistem 4: • Terdapat hubungan saling membantu ketua dan pekerja bawahan. • Proses pembuatan keputusan adalah secara kolektif. • Ahli organisasi juga merupakan ahli unit dalam organisasi. • Organisasi mempunyai matlamat pencapaian tinggi.

9. Teori Z Ouchi Teori alternatif kepada Teori X dan Y dan teori ini adalah berdasarkan corak pengurusan Jepun. Teori Z lebih mengutamakan pembentukan dan penyuburan sumber manusia dalam organisasi. Teori Argyris Menekankan peranan individu dalam organisasi. Menyokong komunikasi terbuka dalam organisasi dan penglibatan dlm membuat keputusan.

10. Implikasi Teori-teori Sumber Manusia terhadap Komunikasi

11. Kesimpulan Pendekatan Sumber Manusia dalam pengurusan adalah kesan kelemahan Teori Hubungan Kemanusiaan. Prinsip-prinsip Sumber Manusia dapat dibentuk dalam organisasi menerusi partisipasi, proses pembuatan keputusan, daya inovasi. Ini jelas menerusi teori Grid Pengurusan Blake dan Mouton, Sistem Likert 4, Teori Z Ouchi dan Teori Argyris. Terdapat sifat kepelbagaian dalam komunikasi dalam organisasi sumber manusia.

12. Teori Sistem Ludwig Von Bertalanffy Merujuk kepada organisasi sebagai mempunyai TIGA komponen: Susunan Hierarki (Hierarchical Ordering) Pembentukan organisasi menyerupai satu sistem yang kompleks seperti sistem biologi tubuh manusia. Di dalam sistem tersebut terdapat sub-sistem yang membantu proses pengorganisasian. Saling Bergantung dan Memerlukan (Interdependence) Satu sistem yang besar memerlukan sub-sistem yang kecil untuk beroperasi. Keterbukaan (Permeability) Organisasidiandaikan sebagai organism hidup yang memerlukan elemen luar untuk beroperasi. Elemen keterbukaan menyebabkan organisasi menerima inovasi luar.

13. Proses Sistem Sistem diterjemahkan menerusi proses input-throughput-output. “inputs” adalah bahan atau maklumat persekitaran luar yang masuk ke dalam organisasi menerusi elemen keterbukaan. Menerusi proses transformasi aktiviti “throughput” berlaku dan menghasilkan “output”.

14. Sistem mentransformasikan output kepada environment luar e.g. Kilang Perabut  perabut  public Bahan mentah “input” “throughput” “output”

15. Ciri-ciri Sistem Holistik -- Sistem diterangkan sebagai menyeluruh/ besar. Sesuatu sistem itu bersifat holistik kerana setiap anggota sistem bergantung antara satu dengan yang lain. Organisasi juga akan kukuh apabila terdapat amalan berkerja bersama. Equifinality -- Untuk mencapai sesuatu matlamat itu banyak cara yang boleh dilakukan. Pelbagai cara tersebut akan dilakukan untuk tujuan pencapaian metlamat organisasi.

16. Entropi Negatif -- Kecenderungan sistem yang mengamalkan dasar tertutup untuk mengalami kemusnahan. Sistem yang mengamalkan dasar terbuka mampu menghalang kemusnahan. Kepelbagaian Keperluan -- Kepelbagaian kaedah untuk mengawal pelbagai cabaran yang mungkin muncul daripada persekitaran sistem.

17. Teori Sistem Sibernetiks -- dikembangkan oleh Norbert Wiener 1948 – 1954. Fokus kepada penerangan bagaimana satu sistem berupaya mencapai keseimbangan atau homeostasis kerana kewujudan pelbagai komponen yang saling berkait. Sistem Sibernertiks mementingkan tindak balas dalam memastikan keupayaan untuk berfungsi.

18. Teori Maklumat -- Teori yang menekankan kepentingan maklumat dalam organisasi. Pertukaran maklumat merupakan keperluan kepada organisasi.

19. Teori Budaya Organisasi • Fokus terhadap apakah itu organisasi? Apakah yang dipunyai oleh organisasi. • Empat komponen budaya kukuh: • Nilai • Wira (Heroes) • Upacara dan Amalan (Rituals) • Jaringan Budaya

20. Budaya Organisasi adalah kompleks Budaya organisasi diterjemahkan menerusi upacara, peraturan komunikasi, “cerita”, kepercayaan, simbol. Kemunculan Budaya Organisasi adalah hasil interaksi ahli dalam organisasi. Walau bagaimanapun tidak wujud satu Budaya Organisasi yang unggul.

21. Budaya organisasi mempunyai kesan terhadap bentuk dan struktur organisasi. Menerusi kajian berbentuk deskriptif pengkaji akan dapat memahami budaya organisasi dan mengenali organisasi tersebut. Budaya penting terhadap mengarahkan kejayaan organisasi.

23. Apakah dengan melihat bangunan tersebut anda dapat memahami budaya organisasi tersebut?

24. Motivation and Hygiene Factors Frederick Herzberg (1923 – 2000)

28. Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory • Focuses on outcomes that lead to higher motivation and job satisfaction, and those outcomes that can prevent dissatisfaction. • Motivator needs relate to the nature of the work itself—autonomy, responsibility, interesting work. • Hygiene needs are related to the physical and psychological context of the work—comfortable work environment, pay, job security. • Unsatisfied hygiene needs create dissatisfaction; satisfaction of hygiene needs does not lead to motivation or job satisfaction.

29. Two-factor Theory (or Motivation-Hygiene Theory) • Herzberg: • Job context is source of dissatisfaction • Problems with hygiene factors (e.g., pay, working conditions) lead to dissatisfaction; lack of problems means lack of dissatisfaction • Job content is the source of job satisfaction • Motivator factors (e.g., achievement, responsibility) link with job performance; if high, satisfaction high and performance strong

30. Two-factor Theory (or Motivation-Hygiene Theory) • Validity unconfirmed – not replicated using different methods • Still does not explain individual differences, professional or cultural differences

31. Motivators and Hygiene Factors • Frederick Herzberg theorized that two entirely separate dimensions contribute to an employee’s behavior at work—hygiene factors and motivators. • Hygiene factors are elements such as working conditions, pay, policies, interpersonal relationships • Motivators fulfill high-level needs and include achievement, recognition, responsibility and opportunity for growth

32. Motivators and Hygiene Factors • Motivators satisfy subordinates–-the things which encourage them to attend work, comply to group or team goals, and produce. • They often are linked to performance. Positive recognition by a superior and among peers during a formal meeting is an example of this.

33. Motivators and Hygiene Factors • Hygiene factors keep subordinates from being dissatisfied. They apply to subordinates regardless of performance. • Timely and thorough completion of and counseling on fitness evaluations are an example of a hygiene factor. • The act is expected. When it does not happen subordinates become dissatisfied and may come to believe that superiors are not taking care of them. • Satisfiers (motivators) and dissatisfiers (hygiene factors) lie on completely different scales and must be considered independently.

34. Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory • KITA versus “true” motivation • Short-term movement versus long-term motivation • Job enrichment is an attempt to instill an internal generator in the employee • Studies of Herzberg’s theory have included employees working in a variety of industries and jobs • Accountants, engineers, nurses, military officers, and others

35. Hygiene Factors • Work environment & target basic needs • Range from dissatisfaction to no dissatisfaction • The presence of hygiene cannot lead to satisfaction or high levels of motivation • Perception that hygiene is an entitlement

36. Hygiene Factors (cont) • Salary • Can it ever be enough? • Benefits • Health care costs, premium sharing • Company policy & administration • Work conditions • Office space, equipment, etc.

37. Motivator Factors • Motivators • Tap needs for psychological growth • Job content: The work itself • Lead to high levels of employee motivation and satisfaction

38. Motivator Factors (cont) • Examples • Recognition • Responsibility • Achievement • Growth and learning

39. Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory Hygiene Factors (lower order needs) Motivator Factors (higher order needs) • Salary • Company policies • Working conditions • Benefits • Job security • Career Advancement • Personal growth • Recognition • Responsibility • Achievement 0 Job Satisfaction High Job Dissatisfaction High Chapter 6

40. Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory Hygiene Factor - work condition related to dissatisfaction caused by discomfort or pain • maintenance factor • contributes to employee’s feeling not dissatisfied • contributes to absence of complaints Motivation Factor - work condition related to the satisfaction of the need for psychological growth • job enrichment • leads to superior performance & effort

41. Motivation factors increase job satisfaction • Company policy & administration • Supervision • Interpersonal relations • Working conditions • Salary • Status • Security • Achievement • Achievement recognition • Work itself • Responsibility • Advancement • Growth • Salary? Hygiene factors avoid job dissatisfaction Motivation–Hygiene Theory of Motivation SOURCE: Adapted from Frederick Herzberg, The Managerial Choice: To be Efficient or to Be Human. (Salt Lake City: Olympus, 1982). Reprinted by permission.

42. Motivation-Hygiene Combinations (Motivation = M, Hygiene = H)

43. Job Satisfaction Job satisfaction = how positively or negatively individuals feel about their jobs • Observable informally through observation and interpretation of behaviour and words • Measured formally in questionnaires • E.g., Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire • E.g., Job Descriptive Index

44. Effects of Job Satisfaction • Link to absenteeism • Satisfied have lower absenteeism • Link to turnover • Dissatisfied more likely to quit • Link to performance complex • Satisfaction is NOT good predictor of individual performance • Successful performance does seem to lead to greater satisfaction • Proper allocation of rewards can increase both performance and satisfaction

45. Summary • Hygiene factors (dissatisfiers) are working conditions, pay, policies, interpersonal relationships • Motivators (satisfiers) fulfill high-level needs and include recognition, responsibility and opportunity for growth

46. Organizational Information Theory Managing large amounts of information is one of the leading challenges for organizations. As new means of communication increase, the amount of messages we send and receive, and the speed of those messages increase. "Karl Weick developed an approach to describe the process by which organizations collect, manage, and use the information that they recieve" (West and Turner, p. 243).

47. Organizational Information Theory In developing his approach, Weick focuses on the process rather than the structure. Here, his focus was on the exchange of information that takes place within organizations and how individuals within the oganization take steps to understand the material. "The focus of Organizational Information Theory is on the communication of information that is vital in determining the success of an organization" (West and Turner, p. 244).

48. Karl E. Weick is the Rensis Likert Collegiate Professor of Organizational Behavior and Psychology Professor of Organizational Behavior and Human Resource Management Professor of Psychology at the University of Michigan. His PhD is from Ohio State University in Social and Organizational Psychology.

49. Dr. Weick's Book The Social Psychology of Organizing, first published in 1969 and revised in 1979, was declared one of the nine best business books ever written by Inc Magazine in December of 1996. The organizing formulation has more recently been expanded into a book titled Sensemaking in Organizations.

50. Dr. Weick's research interests include collective sensemaking under pressure, medical errors, hand-offs in extreme events, high reliability performance, improvisation, and continuous change. Dr. Weicks graduate level teaching focuses on the social psychology of organizing, micro foundations of organization studies, the craft of scholarship, and his executive education teaching focuses on the management of uncertainty through sensemaking and improvisation.