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The Enlightenment Ch. 19
“During the 18th Century, the expanding boundaries of European knowledge marked the Age of Enlightenment. The Enlightenment was a new way of thinking critically about the world and about humankind, independently of religion, myth, or tradition. The new method was based on using reason to reflect on the results of physical experiments and involved the critical analysis of texts. Enlightenment thought promoted the scientific questioning of all assertions and rejected unfounded beliefs about the nature of humankind and of the world. The enlightened mind was skeptical of doctrines and theories such as superstitions and old wives’ tales that no verifiable evidence could prove.” (Gardner’s Art Through the Ages) • “The political, economic, and social consequences of this expanding knowledge were explosive…”
Origins of the Enlightenment • Deism: • Deists saw no point in any particularreligion; they recognized only a distant God, uninvolved in the daily life of man. Scientific Revolution • Science allowed alternatives to be imagined in everything from politics to religion • Natural History Skepticism Classicism
Deism • Deism is belief in the existence of a personal God, they sought to construct a natural religion by the light of reason alone, totally discrediting revelation. • deists hold that correct religious beliefs must be founded on human reason and observed features of the natural world, and that these sources lead to belief in the existence of one God or supreme being. • The universe is like a giant machine that ran according to natural laws w/ God as the constructor • Grew out of Newton’s theories of natural law • Baruch Spinoza (1632-1677): philosopher during Scientific Revolution who equated God and nature
Characteristics of Utilitarianism the greatest good for the greatest number. Tolerance No opinion is worth burning your neighbor for. Secularism application of the methods of science to religion & philosophy. Optimism & Self-Confidence • The belief that man is intrinsically good. • The belief in social progress. Freedom • Of thought and expression. • Bring liberty to all men Education of the Masses Legal Reforms • Justice, kindness, and charity no torture or indiscriminant incarceration. • Due process of law. Constitutionalism • Written constitutions listing citizens rights.
Philosophes • Enlightenment began in France mid-1700s • Philosophes were writers, artists, scientists, musicians, economists, etc. • Believed that reason could be applied to all aspects of life • Optimistic about how people should live and govern themselves • Key concepts: • Reason • Natural Laws • Happiness • Social progress • Liberty • By 1775 much of Western Europe’s educated elite embraced the Enlightenment
Social Contract Theories HOBBES: LEVIATHAN (1660) JOHN LOCKE: TWO TREATISES(1690) • Humans are born self-interested, wicked… • Life in state of nature is “nasty, brutish, and short” • w/o gov. to keep order = chaos • People agree to give up absolute freedom to a strong (absolute) ruler, in exchange they get law & order • absolute monarchy necessary to protect us from ourselves • People are born w/ a clean slate “tabula rasa” & are shaped by experiences • We have God-given natural rights (life, liberty, property) • Undermines Christian view of sinful human • Justifiable revolution • Gov. power comes from the people (democracy)
Voltaire1694-1778 • Most influential • Exiled to Britain, believed English society superior b/c democratic gov. • Advocated enlightened despotism influencing Frederick the Great of Prussia, Catherine the Great of Russia, and Joseph II of Austria • Used satire to criticize the French gov., aristocracy, Catholic Church • set the stage for the French Revolution • Advocated religious tolerance • “crush the infamous thing” • Believed in equality before the law but not equality of classes “If we don’t find anything pleasant, at least we shall find something new” (Voltaire, Candide, 1759)
Every man is guilty of all the good he didn’t do. • God is a comedian playing to an audience too afraid to laugh. • If God did not exist, it would be necessary to invent him. • It is dangerous to be right when the government is wrong. • Love truth and pardon error. • Judge of a man by his questions rather than by his answers. • Men are equal; it is not birth, but virtue that makes the difference. • Prejudice is opinion without judgment. • The way to become boring is to say everything. • I may not agree with what you have to say, but I will defend to the death your right to say it.
Montesquieu 1689-1755 • Used scientific method to study gov. (political scientist) • Three types of government: • Monarchy • Republic • Despotism • A separation of political powers ensured freedom and liberty. • Persian Letters, 1721 • The Spirit of Laws, 1758
Rousseau 1712-1778 • Wrote Social Contract (1762): only good gov. was one freely formed by people & ruled by general will (direct democracy) – not minority view • Differed from Locke in that he wanted to abolish titles of nobility & make all equal in society (socialism) • Did not, however, believe in equality of women, rather they should be obedient & nurturing • Inspired bourgeois leaders of the French Revolution but seen as founder of Romanticism with emphasis on emotion over reason “Man was born free, and everywhere he is in chains” (Jean-Jacques Rousseau, The Social Contract, 1762.)
Question Does progress in the arts and sciences correspond with progress in morality? • As civilizations progress, they move away from morality. • Science & art raised artificial barriers between people and their natural state. • Therefore, the revival of science and the arts had corrupted social morals, not improved them!
Virtue exists in the “state of nature,” but lost in “society.” • Government must preserve “virtue” and “liberty.” • Man is born free, yet everywhere he is in chains. • The concept of the”Noble Savage.” • Liberty, Equality, Fraternity. • Civil liberty invest ALL rights and liberties into a society.
Individual moral freedom could be achieved only by learning to subject one’s individual interests to the “General Will.” • Individuals did this by entering into a social contract not with their rulers, but with each other.
CesareBeccaria • Wrote On Crime and Punishments (1764) • Law existed to preserve social order, not to avenge crimes or tied to religious concept of sin • Against torture, no capital punishment, nor cruel & unusual punishment • Speedy trial, punishment should fit the crime
Marquis de Condorcet, 1743-1794 • Progress of the Human Mind, 1794 • An expectation of universal happiness. • Every individual guided by reason could enjoy true independence. • He advocated a free and equal education, constitutionalism, and female suffrage.
Economics – Adam Smith • Father of free market capitalism • Gov. regulation interfered w/ the production of wealth; econ. would prosper if gov. left it alone - “laissez-faire” Economy operated through the “invisible hand” • Wrote The Wealth of Nations (1776) • 3 Natural laws of economics: • The law of self-interest • The law of competition • The law of supply & demand • Gov. has 3 roles: • protect society from invasion • public works (infrastructure) • defend citizens from injustice
Spread of the Enlightenment Women played a big role in salon movement: Social gatherings to exchange ideas on politics, music, poetry, art… • Organized by the upper classes, mainly women • Marie-Therese Geoffrin, most influential and patron of Diderot’s Encyclopedia • Madame de Stael later brought German romantic ideas into France in early 1800s Ideas also spread through coffeehouses, academies, lending libraries, and Masonic lodges.
The Salonnieres Madame Geoffrin(1699-1777) MadameSuzanne Necker(1739-1794) MademoiselleJulie de Lespinasse(1732*-1776)
Denis Diderot (1713-1784): The Encyclopedia • Greatest and most representative work of the philosophes • Spread Enlightenment ideas to educated, literate people & popularized view of Enlightenment • Collection of the most current enlightened works on math, science, art, geography… • French gov. & Catholic Church banned work (in Index of Prohibited Books) believing it undermined their authority, encouraged a spirit of revolt, and fostered “moral corruption, irreligion, and unbelief.”
Women 1. Mary Astell (1694) • Used Enlightenment arguments to criticize unequal relationships in marriage: • “If absolute sovereignty be not necessary in a state, how comes it to be so in a family?” • “If all men are born free, how is it that all women are born slaves?”
2. Mary Wollstonecraft • Education was key to gaining equality & freedom & needed it to be useful & virtuous She ridiculed prevailing notions about women as helpless, charming adornments in the household. Society had bred "gentle domestic brutes." "Educated in slavish dependence and enervated by luxury and sloth," women were too often nauseatingly sentimental and foolish. A confined existence also produced the sheer frustration that transformed these angels of the household into tyrants over child and servant. Education held the key to achieving a sense of self-respect and anew self-image that would enable women to put their capacities to good use.
3. Emilie du Chatelet • Aristocrat trained as mathematician and physicist 4. Olympe de Gouges • Declaration of the Rights of Woman and Female Citizen
Reading During the Enlightenment • Literacy: • 80% for men; 60% women. • Books were expensive (one day’s wages). • Many readers for each book (20 : 1) • novels, plays & other literature. • journals, memoirs, “private lives.” • philosophy, history, theology. • newspapers, political pamphlets.
Novels • Philosophes used novels to spread Enlightenment ideas & social commentary: • Appealed to the middle classes & women • Samuel Richardson’s Pamela • Virtue rewarded • Henry Fielding’s Tom Jones • Criticism of social class tensions • Daniel Defoe’s Robinson Crusoe • Cultural relativism, religious (Puritan) morality, Social Darwinism Pamela
Neoclassical Art, 18th C. • One of the defining characteristics of the late 18th century was a renewed interest in classical antiquity. • The Neoclassical movement encompassed painting, sculpture, but architecture is regarded as the most prominent manifestation of this interest & fascination with Greek and Roman culture. • The geometric harmony of classical art & architecture seemed to embody Enlightenment ideals. • Greco-Roman traditions of liberty, civic virtue, morality, and patriotic sacrifice served as ideal models. • The Neoclassical style became the French Revolution’s semiofficial voice. Ingres, Apotheosis of Homer, 1827, Louvre, Paris. Boyle & Kent, Chiswick House, London, 1725.
Later Enlightenment (18th C.): age of skepticism David Hume (1711-1776) Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) • He claimed desire, not reason, governed human behavior • As a skeptic, he believed human ideas resulted from sensory experiences thus undermining emphasis on reason • Belief in God rested on superstition and fear rather than on reason. • Argued science could describe nature, but could not guide morality • “categorical imperative” was an intuitive instinct, placed by God in the human conscience • He introduced the concept oftranscendentalism some things are known by methods other than empirically.
Impact of the Enlightenment on society • Emergence of a secular world view; religion increasingly private not public matter • Revolutions in France and the Americas • Growth of laissez-faire capitalism • Education reform • Growth of print media • Enlightened despotism in Russia, Prussia, Austria, and France
18th Century Politics • BRITAIN– Constitutional Monarchy • FRANCERoyal Absolutism (cultural and religious unity) • PRUSSIA, HABSBURG EMPIRE, RUSSIA“Enlightened Despotism” • OTTOMAN EMPIRE –traditional empire
Enlightened Despotism (c. 1740-1815) • States in eastern and central Europe experimented with enlightened absolutism • Inspired by and encouraged by philosophes • Believed absolute rulers should promote good of the people, but (like Hobbes) people could not rule themselves • Modest reforms: • Religious toleration • Simplified legal codes • Access to education • Reduction of torture and death penalty
Frederick the Great (II) of Prussia (r. 1740-1786) War of Austrian Succession (1740-1748) • Frederick invaded and annexed Silesia, part of Austrian Hapsburg empire violating Pragmatic Sanction (1713) • Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle: Prussia gained Silesia thereby doubling its population • Prussia recognized as one of Europe’s “Great Powers”
Seven Years’ War (1756-1763) Treaty of Paris 1763 • Maria Theresa sought to regain Silesia with new allies, Russia and France (goal to divide Prussia between them) • Diplomatic Revolution 1756: France and Austria (enemies) ally against Prussia • Britain supported Prussia financially as a check on France • Bloodiest war since Thirty Years’ War • Became world war included struggle for N. America • Prussia on verge of defeat, Peter III pulled Russia out of war in 1763 (assassinated) • Most important peace treaty of 18th century and since Peace of Westphalia (1648) • Prussia retained Silesia • France lost all its colonies in N. America to Britain • Britain gained more territory in India at French expense
Enlightened Reforms “FIRST SERVANT OF THE STATE” • Remained an absolute ruler – reforms intended to increase power of state • Peasants did not benefit from reforms • Allowed religious freedom (except Jews – granted in 1794) • Promoted education • Codified laws in one clear national legal code • Freed serfs on crown lands in 1763 (not noble lands) • Motive: needed for army • Exams for civil service jobs • Reduced censorship • Abolished capital punishment • Encouraged immigration and industrial and agricultural growth
Catherine the Great of Russia (r. 1762-1796) Background: Pugachev Rebellion 1773 • One of the greatest rulers in European history, but least “enlightened” of the enlightened despots • Lover of French culture and imported its culture (architects, artists, musicians and writers to Russia) • Educational reforms • Restricted torture • Limited degree of religious toleration • Jews granted civil equality after much persecution • Allowed stronger local governments led by elected councils of nobles • Eugene Pugachev, a Cossack soldier, led huge serf uprising • Demanded an end to serfdom, taxes, and army service • Landlords and officials murdered • Captured and executed • Catherine needed nobles and thus gave them absolute control over serfs • Serfdom spread • Freed nobles from taxes and state service • Took Russian Orthodox land and gave to favorite officials
Shortcomings of reforms: Territorial gains: • Only state and nobility benefitted • Serfdom became more severe • Annexed Polish territory under the 3 partitions with Prussia and Austria in 1772, 1793, and 1795 • Gained Ottoman land in the Crimea • Conquest of Caucasus region • Used lands to curry favor with nobles
The Partitions of Poland - 1772 - 1793 - 1795
Maria Theresa of Austria (r. 1740-1780) • Not an enlightened despot, but sought to improve condition of her people through absolute rule (no religious toleration) • As a female, she could not take title of HRE, casting doubt on her legitimacy • She centralized control of Hapsburg Empire by limiting power of the nobles • Reduced their power over serfs • Some were freed, feudal dues were reduced or eliminated, nobles were taxed • She did more than any other ruler to improve condition of serfs • Increased army • Improved tax system • Reduced torture • Brought the Church under state control and taxed it • Promoted economy: • Abolished guilds • Encouraged immigration • Improved transportation
Joseph II (r. 1780-1790) of Austria • Ruled with mother as co-regent until her death • Greatest of enlightened despots in terms of reforms, however, least effective • Deeply influenced by Enlightenment and its reforms while being an absolutist • Reforms: • Abolished serfdom and feudal dues 1781 (rescinded after his death) • Freedom of religion and civic rights to Protestants and Jews • Reduced influence of Catholic Church • Freedom of the press • Reformed judicial system (abolished torture and death penalty) • Expanded state schools • Established hospitals, insane asylums, orphanages, and poorhouses • Made parks and gardens available to public • Made German official language
Decline of Hapsburg Empire under Joseph II • Austria defeated several times in wars with Ottomans • Austrian Netherlands in revolt • Russia threatening territory in eastern Europe and Balkans • Brother, Leopold II reversed many reforms to maintain empire
Questions: • Analyze the extent to which the Enlightenment affected European society with regard to religion, education, and economics. • Analyze the impact of the Enlightenment on politics in the 18th century. • To what extent if the term “Enlightened Despot” appropriate when describing the reigns of Frederick the Great, Catherine the Great, and Joseph II? • Analyze how the balance of power was maintained in Europe between 1740 and 1786.
