The Nineteenth Century: Islam

1. The Nineteenth Century:Islam • Main Themes: • Islam critical in shaping pre-colonial Africa • Reinforced by/reinforcing links with broader Muslim world • Role revivalist movements in generating religious, social, economic change

2. Pre-colonial Islamic Africa • -filters into Africa through world commercial systems: Trans-Saharan, Indian Ocean • -in turn provides continued linkage major Islamic empires: Ottoman, Persian, Indian • -role of the Hajj

3. Pre-colonial Islamic Africa • -15th-17th centuries portrayed as ‘peak’ of Islamic world influence • -’long decline’ through 18th-19th centuries providing Europe with opportunity to ‘rise’ • -perception shaped historiography • -question degree to which true, especially in Africa

4. Nineteenth Century • -key changes 18th-19th century Islamic world: reformism, revivalism • -militaristic expression: jihad, ‘mahdism’ • -transformation relations with Ottoman empire: Africa seeking autonomy • -transformation relations with Europe: co-operation or conflict? • -Islam politicized

5. Reformism, Revivalism • Ottoman Empire key: • -attempts modernization, westernization provoking response • -movements seeking purer, fundamental Islam • -resistance to increasing European influence tied to resisting central Ottoman power: secularism vs religiosity • -new reformist movements politicized

6. Reformism, Revivalism • Africa: • -takes various forms: • -rise new ‘tariqa’ or brotherhoods • -mahdism • -jihad • -used to unify, build new states • -effective ‘resistance’ European colonial rule • -reshapes societies, economies

7. Reformism, Revivalism:North & West Africa • ‘tariqa’: Tidjaniya, Qadiriya, Sanussiya • -named after Islamic clerics, often sufi based • -each with own ‘rules’ of affiliation • -spreading into and through Sahara • -follows commercial networks • -supporting economic and political activities • -acting as ‘ideology’ even in ‘stateless’ Sahara

8. Reformism, Revivalism:North & West Africa • Examples: • -Kunta (Qadiriya – 18th-19th c. Sahara)-al-Qadir (Qadiriya – 19th c. Algeria)-al-Hajj Umar (Tidjaniya – 19th c. Mali)-Uthman dan Fodio (Qadiriya – 19th c. Nigeria) • -al-Sanusi (Sanusiyya – 19th c. Libya) • -al-Mahdi (Shi’ism – 19th c. Sudan)

9. Jihad States in the Nineteenth Century

10. “Al-Mahdi (Sudan) Abd Al-Qadir (Algeria)

11. “Futanke” (Fulani) soldier, Umarian Jihad (Mali) Samory Ture (Guinea-Ivory Coast)

12. “Mahdi” saviour of slaves (imagined scene)

13. Reformism, Revivalism:North & West Africa • Questions: • -how significant was religious base of movements? • -to what extent were they ‘local’ in origin? • -to what extent were they ‘legitimate’? • -were they beneficial to African growth? • -how do they relate to other 19th century ‘themes’ in African History?

14. Reformism, Revivalism:North & West Africa • ‘Tariqa’ in the Sahara:-closely linked to economic success • -’talibes’ (students) labour force • -clans ‘owed’ allegiance to spiritual leader (military, economic) • -19th c. conflict and competition increase • -religious power vs ‘political’ power • -divisions over interaction with European ‘infidel’

15. Reformism, Revivalism:North & West Africa • Mahdism: • -shia in belief: emphasis on role of Imam in society – return of ‘last Imam’ • -militaristic ‘battle’ – jihad • -initial target: Egypt – secular, imperialistic • -intervention of British turned jihad into ‘resistance to European imperialism’ • -mixed motives of army

16. Reformism, Revivalism:North & West Africa • Jihad: • -several examples across West African Sahel • -tied to Saharan ‘revivalism’, same tariqa • -sometimes actual alliances (eg al-hajj Umar) • -real religious concerns (eg taxation, practices of slavery) but also generated by social, economic issues

17. Jihad States c.1830

18. Jihad States in the Nineteenth Century

19. Reformism, Revivalism:North & West Africa • -issue of ‘bad Muslim’ (eg Uthman dan Fodio): legitimacy? • -warfare with what consequences? • -feeding into ‘growth’ slave trading • -establishment of ‘jihad states’: increase in slave use • -economic impact • -religious warfare but political state: politicization of Islam

20. Reformism, Revivalism:North & West Africa • State building: • -jihads of al-hajj Umar, Uthman dan Fodio most effective • -next generation carried on new state, based on Islamic law and practise • -Sokoto largest, most sophisticated economy and administration • -Umarian regime more localised, attracting migrants to settle • -both resisted Europeans as ‘states’

21. Reformism, Revivalism:North & West Africa • Egypt: • -’different’ only to extent embodied tensions with both European and Ottoman powers • -rise of Muhamed Ali Pasha-resistance to ‘revivalism’ (Wahabism) • -resistance to Ottoman control-role of British • -1880-2: crisis of Islam and Imperialism • -key ‘flashpoint’ in Scramble for Africa

22. Muhamed Ali Pasha(Egypt) “Egyptian Imperialism”(Mohamed Ali Pasha’s empire)

23. Swahili Coast • - Islamic influences came from several directions, over long period time: Egypt, Somalia, Arabia, Persia • - Most important process: trade and intermarriage with locals by merchants • Indian Ocean: monsoon winds controlled when ships could move across and around Ocean – merchants forced to spend up to six months on East African coast -married, established families

24. Swahili Coast • - Local chronicles speak of founding of city-states by Persians (Shiraz) – tale of purchasing island of Kilwa with the cloth it took to surround the land, establishes link between commerce and Islam • -Archaeology (excavation Mosques on the Isle Shanga) shows growing Muslim community from 11th c.

25. Swahili Coast

26. Swahili Coast • -Emergence of Swahili (from Arabic ‘sahil’ or coast) – language of Bantu origin, grammar • -large Arabic vocabulary, also Persian words • -Mixed ‘Arab-Persian’ influence seen in architecture, literature (poetry – utendi)-Network provided basis for spread of Islam, especially in 19th C.

27. Swahili Coast • -1830s Sultan Sayyid Said (Oman) established capital at Zanzibar • -Traders of mixed descent: ‘Swahili’ and African (eg ‘Tippu Tip’) • -Took language, ‘culture’, religion to settlements far in interior • -looked not only to Zanzibar but to traditions of Oman- brought different ‘school’ of Islamic practice: Ibadi • - affected social structure, marriage, identity

28. Swahili Coast Celebration of the Prophet’s Birthday “Traditional” modest Muslim dress

29. Islam in Africa (2003)