Nationalism and European Unity

1. Nationalism and European Unity

2. The Origin of European Unity • Europe was 'united' at several times in the past, mainly in classical times • Roman Empire • Christendom • Successors like Charlemagne, Habsburgs claim title of Holy Roman Emperor - just as various rulers in the Islamic world claimed to be Caliph • 'Europe' replaces Christendom as key idea, c 1300-1350

3. Warfare and the European Idea • Desire to limit warfare within states was always key to the European Idea • George Podebrad (Hussite king of Bohemia) scheme for a compact against the Turks (1458-71). Main European Institutions: • Assembly • Court of Justice • International arbitration • Army • Confederal budget

4. French Ideals of Europe, c. 1600 • Sully's 'Grand Design': • Peace in Europe • Joint army • Alliance against Turks and Tsar • Trade promotion • Representational central body • French as lingua franca • France viewed as leader • A federal plan which respected national distinctiveness • Sought revival of Imperial and Papal authority as sources of legitimacy

5. Enlightenment Europeanism • Penn, Diderot, Paine, St Simon and others • Were cosmopolitan liberals • Europeanism and cosmopolitanism linked • Favoured Europeanism as a ticket to peace, prosperity and Enlightenment • St Simon claims in 1821 that Europeanism as a sentiment already took precedence over nationalism • St Simon sees Anglo-French hub as motor of Europe • End to Papal and Roman dreams; harmony among peoples rather than rulers

6. The Evolution of the European Idea • Napoleon speaks of one European fatherland • After Napoleonic Wars, St Simon's ideas influential and popular. Influenced Lemonnier's Les Etats-Unis d'Europe (1872) • Revival of interest in St Simon after WWI • Most schemes were federal, though some post-WWI radicals rejected the nation outright

7. Europeanism pre-1939 • Briand envisions 'union for economic, political [and] social cooperation' • Took care not to infringe state sovereignty • Met a cool reception from most politicians and opposition from many newspapers, especially on the French right • Paneuropean ideas taken up by non-Communist resistance movements during WWII • Kalergi influences Churchill's 'United States of Europe' speech of 1946

8. Post-WWII • Favourable climate due to war • But this time, improved communications and a more cosmopolitan temper converted the dream into a reality • Christian Democratic parties in Europe with their Catholic links, romanticise the Papal past and favour union, as do many socialists • Humanitarian, pacifist and religious themes blend with economic rationality of free traders

9. Council of Europe • Not EC • 10 original members, 1949 • Developed European Convention on Human Rights (1950) • Elements: • The Secretariat • The Committee of Ministers • The Parliamentary Assembly The European Court of Human Rights • The Commissioner for Human Rights • European Commission for Democracy through Law, better known as the Venice Commission.

10. Council of Europe's Cultural 'Nationalism' • Developed European flag with 12 golden stars (1955) • Established 5 May 1949 as Europe Day (1964) • Anthem based on Beethoven's Ode to Joy (1972) • Has 46 members today: distinct from EU, but complementary

11. European Community • Council of Europe, 1949, a forerunner • European Coal & Steel Community, 1952 • European Economic Community, 1957 • Euratom • Further aspects added after 1957 • Expansion from original 'Six' to present 25

12. The Evolution of the European Community

13. EU Structure

14. The Role of Idealists in the EU Legislative Process

15. EU structure • Degree of centralisation varies by function: • A Federation (i.e. 'State') in monetary affairs, agricultural, trade and environmental policy. Also in legal-social aspects and citizenship • A Confederation in social and economic policy, consumer protection, internal affairs • An International Organisation in foreign affairs

16. Qualified Majority Voting (QMV) • Since Nice Treaty (2000), an increasing number of decisions taken by QMV rather than unanimity • QMV threshold set to fall from 71% to 62% • Means that nations no longer have a veto on integration. A step favouring integration rather than nationalism (intergovernmentalism) • Council of Ministers

17. Shift from Unanimity to QMV • 27 new provisions are passing in whole or in part from unanimity to a qualified majority, including: • judicial cooperation in civil matters • industrial policy • measures to facilitate the free movement of citizens • economic, financial and technical cooperation with third countries • the appointment of members of certain institutions • the move to qualified majority voting was not accepted for social and tax policy.

18. EU Citizenship vs National • Freedom to move and take up residence anywhere in the Union; • The right to vote and stand in local government and European Parliament elections in the country of residence • Clearly gives foreigners important rights within nation-states

19. Balance between Nation and EU • Always a balance between nation-state interests and pan-European interest • Battle goes on between and within institutions • Balance between Euro-idealism and proponents of national interest ('intergovernmentalism') • Sometimes interests of small nations dovetail with that of integrationists (they have more clout to gain from being part of Europe )

20. European Court of Justice • A more direct proponent of integration than even the Commission • One judge per state, but decisions based on simple majority • Judges and the 8 appointed advocates-general may often be Euro-idealists or activist in their philosophy • Van Gend en Loos case (1963) gives individuals rights under EU law against their nation-states • Costa v. ENEL case (1964): where national and EU law conflict, latter is supreme

21. ECJ Positive and Negative Integration • Promotes 'negative integration': barriers to intra-EU activity declared invalid • Promotes 'positive integration': EC legal regimes constructed to replace national ones • Negative Integration: 1974 case declared rules which hinder intra-EC trade illegal; 1979 Cassis de Dijon

22. ECJ Positive Integration • Examples: • Gender Equality: Art. 119 of EEC Treaty: 'equal pay for equal work' • EU as 'Social Community', despite opposition from UK • Opens up a flood of litigation from women

23. EU Expansion

24. Impact of Expansion • Expansion to 25 will dilute integration • Harder for a common foreign policy and common action • More poor countries will put strain on EU budget - unlikely that wealthy countries will contribute more (EU budget around 1.5% of EU GDP) • Turkey and E Europe: Unclear where limits lie: will this not dilute identity of EU (ie. No longer between Tsar and Sultan) • Possible 'Two-Speed' Europe

25. Problems with European Cultural or Civilizational Identity • Exclusive or Partial Items: • Christianity (Catholic, Prot, Orthodox, non-Christian) • Greco-Roman Inheritance (Islam?) • Reformation/Enlightenment (Islam, Catholicism?) • Caucasian ‘race’ (US, non-white Europeans?) • Geography (but what about EU expansion) • ‘Others’ (but if Turks and Russians come in, where are the traditional enemies?)

26. Pro-European Nations • Certain states embrace integrationist sentiments more than others • France, Germany and other original members (especially the 'Six') are most pro-Europe among western European countries • Much has to do with national identities of these states as opposed to mere national interest • Europe also a route to prominence on the world stage for certain nations • Less well-off nations tend to be pro-Europe for economic reasons (S & E Europe + Ireland)

27. France: Gaullist pro-Europeanism • Seeks to reclaim French cultural predominance of 18th-19th c • Seeks to challenge Anglo-Saxon hegemony of 19th-20th c • Sees Anglo-Saxon west as ‘other’ • De Gaulle positions France at the heart of a Europe that includes Russia and is flanked by Anglo-Saxon West and Chinese East • 1963 crisis over UK entry into EEC which De Gaulle seeks to block UK entry

28. German pro-European Idealism • Nazi period discredits nationalism • Cosmopolitan as opposed to Gaullist spirit • Desire for influence and self-respect without nationalism • Less anti-Anglo-Saxon due to post-WWII (witness different attitudes toward English as language) • More truly cosmopolitan than French pro-Europeanism

29. Smaller Nations: Benelux • History of neutrality and fear of larger nations • History of pooling sovereignty in alliances • Only chance of agency is through a larger unit • Identity is less significant in absence of larger blocks • Belgium and Luxembourg lack clear linguistic or religious markers of nationhood unlike say Germany or France

30. Do you feel national, European or Both (2004)?

31. Views of Unification (1995)

32. Euroskepticism – On the Rise? • Smith: elites identify more easily because Europeanism may be a proxy of class/education • Smith: without European education and media, little resonance among masses – esp less mobile • Evidence shows that Euro-skepticism and anti-immigration sentiment strongly linked and tied to less well-educated population segments • Rise in support for European integration peaks, 1988

33. Conclusion • Idea of Europe is at least 1000 years old • Many aspects of the European Union challenge national sovereignty • But the EU also reinforces national identity • Particular nations tend to favour European unity due to their own historical experience and economic interests • Trend towards integration appears to have stalled due to expansion and the rise of Euro-skepticism in western Europe