Organizational Behaviour

1. Organizational Behaviour Motivation To Work

2. The Evolution of Motivation Theory Needs, Motives & Goals 1 Scientific Management Homo Economicus 2 Human Relations Homo Gregarious 3 Neo Human Relations Homo Actualis source: Johnson & Gill, 1993management control & organizational behaviour

3. Drives, Motives & Motivation • Drives are innate, biological determinants of behaviour, activated by deprivation • Motivesare socially acquired needs activated by a desire for fulfilment • Motivation is the cognitive decision making process through which goal directed behaviour is initiated, energized and directed and maintained Huczynski & Buchanan, 2001

4. EARLY IDEAS Scientific Management & the work of F.W. Taylor The Hawthorne Experiments & the human relations approach Development of many competing theories on the nature of work motivation CONTENT THEORIES Emphasis on what motivates individuals PROCESS THEORIES Emphasis on the actual process of motivation The various theories are not conclusive but provide a useful framework in which to direct study An overview of approaches to work motivation Mullins, 1966

5. 9 self-actualization Maslow’s hierarchy of needs 8 freedom of enquiry & expression 7 transcendence 6 aesthetics 5 Knowing & understanding 4 esteem 3 affiliation 2 safety 1 biological requirements Source: Huczynski & Buchanan, 2001

6. HYGIENE OR MAINTENANCE FACTORS salary, job security, working conditions, level & quality of supervision, company policy & administration interpersonal relations THE DISSATISFIERS MOTIVATION AND JOB SATISFACTION THE SATISFIERS sense of achievement, recognition, responsibility, nature of the work, personal growth & advancement MOTIVATORS OR GROWTH FACTORS Representation of Hertzberg’s two-factor theory source: Mullins, 1996

7. Alderfer’s ERG theory Hertzberg’s two- factor theory McClelland’s Learned needs Maslow’s Needs hierarchy Self- actualisation Need for achievement Growth Motivators Need for power Ego, status esteem Relatedness Social Need for affiliation Hygiene factors Security & safety Existence Physiological Theories of motivation: similarities between Herzberg, Maslow, Alderfer & McClelland source: adapted from Kakabadse, et al, 1987

8. High Needs Individualneeds Low Needs Individual Motivational Drivers to feel work is intrinsically interesting & useful do work regardless of intrinsic interest or usefulness 1 interest no motivation for achievement, world passes them by self-challenging goals, unhappy if nothing to achieve, requires constant stimulation 2 achievement indifferent to others’ views about them, often insensitive to others 3 recognition constant recognition & appreciation; can inhibit effectiveness 4 self-development does what is required, personal development contribution not issue to grow & develop; assess work on contribution to personal growth 5 variety & change constant variety, & stimulation, high level of arousal & vigilance happy to tolerate mundane & boring little need for creativity, lacks curiosity, can be close-minded explorative & open-minded, curious & thinks divergently 6 creativity no wish to attempt to exercise influence strong impulse to influence others, competitiveness drives personality 7 power & influence no compelling need for company, but can work with others if need Needs light social contact with a wide range of people 8 social contact indifferent to money as motivator, little energy spent thinking reward high salary & tangible rewards, concentrates on monetary rewards 9 money & tangible rewards finds rules & structures restrictive, wants freedom, feels no need for compliance Rules & structure, feedback & information, wants procedures 10 structure to form & sustain long-term relationships with small no. of people feels no need to maintain deep relationships, can work with people 11 relationships largely indifferent to physical surroundings Good working conditions, constant complaints if not comfortable 12 physical conditions The Motivation Profile Richie, S. & Martin, P. 1999, Motivation Management,

9. Process Theories of Motivation • Process theories focus on how individuals make choices with respect to desired goals. Individuals have a cognitive decision-making role in selecting goals & the means with which to pursue them EXPECTANCY THEORY • A motive is an outcome that has become desirable • Process by which outcomes become desirable • Productive work seen as path to valued goals • Assumes individuals behave instrumentally to achieve valued outcomes • Expectancy – “the beliefs an individual holds about the outcomes likely to result form a given work behaviour or performance” (Vroom, 1964) Source: Huczynski & Buchanan, 2001

10. Instrumentality - extent to which first-level outcomes lead to second-level outcomes Expectancy - perceived probability that effort will lead to first-level outcomes Second-level outcomes Need-related Praise from superior First-level outcomes Performance related for example Effort expended (motivational force) High wages level of performance High productivity Promotion Friendship of co-workers Basic model of expectancy theory source: Mullins, 1996

11. Expectancy • Expectancy – the individual’s subjective appraisal of the associations between different possible actions and the outcomes of those actions • “If I achieve the level of performance, what rewards will I receive?” “How much effort must I expend in order to achieve that level of performance?” • ‘Valency’ – the level of satisfaction or dissatisfaction an individual expects to receive from a particular outcome • Negative valency – perceived outcomes an individual would prefer to avoid • Positive valency – outcomes an individual finds desirable • Force of your motivation to work hard = valence X instrumentality X Expectancy • Instrumentality – perceived likelihood that good performance will lead to valued rewards (subjective probability of outcome occurring) • Expectancy – perceived likelihood that effort will result in good performance

12. Perceived value of outcomes Perceived equability of rewards Skills Abilities & Traits Outcomes intrinsic & extrinsic rewards &/or punishments available Job satisfaction Effort Performance Fit between role perceptions & demands Expectation that performance & expended effort lead to desired outcomes & rewards The Porter & Lawler Expectancy Model of Motivation

13. Attribution Theory • More recent approach to study of motivation concerned with relationships between perceptions and behaviour • Behaviour is determined by combination of perceived internal and external forces & behaviour at work may be explained by locus of control Locus of Control Internal External Feel that outcomes are the result of external forces beyond your control Feel that you can personally influence outcomes through ability, skills or effort

14. Equity Theory - Adams • Equity theory is a process theory of motivation which argues that the perception of unfairness in a social or organizational setting leads to tension, which motivates the individual to act to resolve that unfairness Huczynski & Buchanan, 2001

15. A person (P) with certain inputs (I) & receiving certain Outcomes & rewards (O) Compares his/her input/output ratio to reference person A reference person’s (RP) inputs (I) & outcomes (O) And perceives ORP OP IP - inputs of the person (effort & contribution - ideas, time, etc) OP - outputs of the person (rewards – recognition, pay etc.) IRP - inputs of reference person (contribution, effort etc.) ORP - outputs of reference person (rewards, etc.) (equity) = IRP IP OP ORP < (inequity) IP IRP OP ORP > (inequity) IP IRP Equity Theory of Motivation source: Ivancevich & Matteson

16. Goal difficulty Responses or actions Work behaviour & performance Emotions and desires Goals or intentions Values Level of commitment Illustration of Locke’s Theory of Goal setting Consequences or feedback source: Mullins, 1996

17. Directing one’s attention Regulating one’s efforts Goals motivate the individual by .... Task Performance Increasing one’s persistence Encouraging the development of goal-attainment strategies or action plans Locke’s model of goal setting Source: Krietner & Kinicki, 1995

18. The Job Characteristics Model Core Job Dimensions Critical Psychological States Personal & Work Outcomes Skill variety Task identity Task significance Autonomy Feedback Experienced meaningfulness of the work Experienced responsibility for outcomes of the work Knowledge of the actual results of the work activities High internal work motivation High-quality work performance High satisfaction with the work Low absenteeism & turnover Employee Growth-Need Strength Source: Daft (1994) Management (3rd Ed.). Adapted from Hackman & Oldham (1976) “Motivation through the design of work: Test of a theory, Organizational Behaviour & Performance, 16

19. The Psychological Contract • Motivational decision model operates within a psychological contract • set of expectations, usually unstated between individual and organization • Psychological contract can be: • Coercive • Calculative • Co-operative usually a mix of all three, with one dominant nature of contract operating often depend on manager’s assumptions about man in general Source: Handy (1985)Understanding organizations

20. Consequences Job satisfaction Organizational commitment Sense of security Employment relations Motivation Organizational citizenship Absence Intention to quit Causes Content Organizational culture/climate HRM policy & practice Experience Expectations Alternatives Fairness TRUST Rewards The delivery of the ‘deal’ Model of the Psychological Contract (Guest, 1998, Journal of Organizational behaviour)

21. Organizational Commitment “Commitment is the willingness of an employee to exert high levels of effort on behalf of the organization, a strong desire to stay with the organization and an acceptance of its major goals and values”.(Porter & Lawler. 1968) “ …commitment can be generally characterized by at least three factors: (a) a strong belief in and acceptance of the organization’s goals and values; (b) a willingness to exert considerable effort on behalf of the organization; (c) a definite desire to maintain organizational membership” (Porter, Steers, Mowday & Boulian, 1974)

22. Attitudinal Commitment • The term “Organizational Commitment” has become synonymous with the attitudinal aspect of commitment because the object of attitudinal is the organization. • In contrast the object of behavioral commitment is the individual and how he/she, having made the commitment contract, can avoid embarrassment or material loss by continuance of that contract. “The concept of organizational commitment refers to a person’s affective reactions to characteristics of his employing organization. It is concerned with feelings of attachment to the goals and values of the organization, one’s role in relation to this, and attachment to the organization for its own sake rather than for its strictly instrumental value” (Cook & Wall, 1980, p40)

23. Attitudinal Commitment The psychological state common to three components of organizational commitment: • Affective:the employees’ emotional attachment to, identification with, and involvement in the organization. • Continuance:the employees’ awareness of the cost associated with leaving the organization. • Normative:employees’ feeling of obligation to the organization

24. Affective Commitment “Affective commitment is the employees’ emotional attachment to, identification with and involvement in the organization” (Allen & Meyer, 1990, p1) • Attachment:Congruency of goals & values. • Involvement:A sense of belonging to the organization. • Identification:Employees are willing to exert considerable effort on the organization’s behalf and/or in its defense.

25. Development of Affective Commitment • Attachment:Employees instinctively react positively to organizations whose goals & values are congruent with their own and that this process is in effect a “subconscious assimilation” of the organizations goals & values. • Involvement:Employees exhibit a desire toparticipate in the decision-making process and if reciprocated would develop a sense of belonging to the organization. • Identification: When the employees’ inclusion in the decision-making processes is reflected by feelings of well-being toward the organization to such an extent that they are willing to exert considerable effort on its behalf and/or in its defense.