Islamic Horn and East Africa

1. Islamic Horn and East Africa

2. Spread of Islam in Africa: Horn Almoravids 11th C. 7th -15th centuries Arab and Swahilitraders spreadIslam: 8th-19thcenturies C.E.

3. Spread of Islam in AfricaEast Africa- “Swahili Coast” Arab and Swahilitraders spreadIslam: 8th-19thcenturies C.E.

4. Islamic Horn & East Africa Islam spread into Horn and Coastal Regions of East Africa same time as into North, West Africa: Nature of ‘Islamic expansion’ and ‘Islamization’ reflects many of the same issues we have already looked at (especially with Christians) but… Also introduces new ones: of particular note in Swahili East Africa -- ‘racism’ [lectures Mar. 29-31]

5. Islamic Horn & East Africa *earlier

6. Islamic Africa: The ‘Horn’ Important to remember: Islam spread around Red Sea as well as Mediterranean sea: Karajites, Shi’ites, Sunnis: all moved out along both shores and into the African ‘Horn’ Many were traders [as we saw in North/West Africa, will see below in East]

7. Islam in North Africa and Ethiopia

8. Islamic Horn & East Africa Significant Difference in the Horn: settlements spread into indigenous communities Number of small Muslim dominated kingdoms grew in Lowlands [today Eritrea, Djibouti, Somalia, Eastern Ethiopia] Many Muslims moved into Christian dominated Highlands: by 1500 Muslims probably 1/3 of total population

9. AncientKingdoms:Christians(EthiopianHighlands) Muslims (CoastalLowlands) “Warriors of the Faith” (North Africa) – Berbers not Arabs

10. Islamic Horn & East Africa Why? What made this Region Different? history goes back to the time of Muhammed Hadiths speak of “first and second hijras to Abyssinia” – six full years before the one to Medina ‘hidden history’ underlying early years of Islam

11. Islamic Horn & East Africa [Robinson] : history goes back to Christian Emperor of Aksum and Prophet Muhammad Ethiopia seen as synonymous with ‘African Christianity’: country itself long seen as Christian, its name given to many African Christian Churches

12. Islamic Horn & East Africa Aksum: state spanning Egypt, Sudan to Red Sea Converted to Christianity following Constantinople but… Stayed with ‘Eastern Orthodox’ view in theological war over ‘nature of Christ’: ‘one nature’ (not divine and human) Isolated itself from Christian Mediterranean

13. Islamic Horn & East Africa Aksum Empire: heavily involved in Arabian Peninsula Interest commercial: occasionally controlled Yemen (to facilitate Asian trade) Active in Red Sea commercial networks Many ‘Aksumites’ in Mecca at time of Prophet

14. Islamic Horn & East Africa Some remained Christians, many joined new Muslim community: most well known . . . Bilal ibn Rabhah: born into Quarysh family as slave to slave parents Abyssinian slave mother [stories vary as to her origin; some say Father Arab, others Abyssinian] known as ‘Bilal al-Habashi’ or ‘Bilal the Ethiopian’

15. Islamic Horn & East Africa Early convert: initially tortured by master for betraying animist religion came to attention of Prophet Muhammad: purchased him and set him free Was first muezzin: first to call people to prayer Later, as freedman, became military officer in Syria and Iraq

16. Islamic Africa: The ‘Horn’ Islamic Miniature: Bilal giving the First adhan (‘call to prayer’ Of the Faithful) (16th C.)

17. Islamic Horn & East Africa Soon after Muhammed began ‘preaching’ for Islam and against Meccan pagans: he feared for safety of small following Sent two groups (in 615, 616) across Red Sea to Emperor of Aksum: trusted as ‘fellow monotheist’ More than 100: sizeable proportion of Muslim community at that time

18. Islamic Horn & East Africa Important People Among Refugees: Muhammad’s daughter, husband – Uthman (3rd Caliph) Muhammad’s future wife Habiba (her husband converted while in exile, she returned as divorced woman) Muhammad’s cousin Jafar, brother to Ali

19. Islamic Horn & East Africa Response from Mecca: delegation to Emperor to request forced return of ‘refugees’ [Robinson]: “had he agreed, the fortunes of Islam might have been different” Point is: Emperor refused request

20. Islamic Horn & East Africa Hadith: ‘ first and second hijra to Abyssinia In 628 (six years following Muhammad’s hijira to Medina): he requested that return of the exiles They came home “weighted down with gifts” from Aksum Emperor also provided dowry for Habiba – so that she could marry Muhammad

21. Islamic Horn & East Africa Hadith: some say Muhammed accorded special ‘state’ to Aksum – dar al-hiyad : the protected (and distinct from dar al-Islam and dar al-harb– the basic ideological dichotomy underlying the notion of jihad) Meant Aksum (and successor) ‘off limits’ for legitimate Islamic war (jihad)

22. Islamic Horn & East Africa Another hadith says: Aksum Emperor converted ‘upon Muhammad’s invitation’ and sent troops to assist in conquest of Mecca But kept personal conversion ‘secret’ because it would not have been accepted by his own court

23. Islamic Horn & East Africa [Robinson] underscores ‘proven’ aspects of this history: Refuge was given when and to whom claimed [sounds like myth largely because is never included in ‘Middle Eastern’ perspective] Aksum clearly was in ‘path’ [we could add ‘Path of God’ in terms of Hoyland]: yet was left alone – significant in terms of context

24. Islamic Horn & East Africa Situation c. 1500: (noted above) large Muslim communities in Highlands State (successor to Aksum) Muslim dominated principalities in Lowlands

25. Islamic Horn & East Africa Lowland States: Geography facilitated Islamization Hijaz, Yemen nearby: strong trade networks tied North East Africa to Arabia Holy Cities Mecca, Medina easily accessible: made pilgrimage and other religious ties stronger

26. Islamic Horn & East Africa Political and Religious Leaders: Some remained Christian but had ‘family ties’ with early Islamic leaders Many converted: but retained local languages, shared customs, culture -- Known as jabarti after town where conversions took place

27. Islamic Horn & East Africa “Missionaries” active: Most from al-Azhar University (established in Cairo by Fatimids 10th c.) ‘helped newly converted communities understand heritage, practice of Islam’ University also established hostel for Ethiopians studying there, known by their name jabarti

28. Islamic Horn & East Africa Important: shared history of scholarship – ‘people of the book’ Egypt(left) Ethiopia(right)

29. Islamic Horn & East Africa Important Point: Ethiopia overlooked by Caliphates Ethiopian Muslims kept connections with East but ‘lager powers’ did not put priority on developing Islam in this area [Robinson]: “Islamization was a local, internal process – but by and large a successful one”

30. Islamic Horn & East Africa Successful … but not uncomplicated: Muslims by late 14th – early 15th centuries, divisions emerged among Muslims over question: ‘what should relations be with Christian Ethiopia?’ - attempt to dominate and make region into dar al-islam? - continue to co-exist, acknowledging Christian power

31. Islamic Horn & East Africa Issue only partly religious: mostly political Emir of Harar (captial of region by early 15th C.) in competition with state/Sultan of Adal Adal larger state but Harar aknowledged religious centre conflict between them frequent

32. Islamic Horn & East Africa Successful … but not uncomplicated: Christians 14th – 15th centuries: as Highland state relations with Christian Mediterranean declined, region increasingly isolated level of involvement Muslim world growing commensurately: three relationships

33. Islamic Horn & East Africa Commercial relations Lowlands-Highlands: controlled Aksum’s ‘access’ to Red Sea Relations with significant Muslim minorities communities within the Christian kingdom Religious relations with Egypt: Coptic Christian Church based in Alexandria – civil relations needed with Muslim masters of Egypt (whoever they might be at any given time)

34. Islamic Horn & East Africa “Crusade and jihad”: Muslims growing in influence, wealth and power: seen increasingly as threat Aksum’s successor state: took control port on Red Sea used rhetoric of European Crusades [next week’s topic]: Muslims inferior, ‘the enemy’. . .

35. Islamic Horn & East Africa demanded tribute from some Lowland states Muslims responded (in kind) with resistance, declarations, rhetoric of jihad [Robinson]: “The Stage was now set for the confrontations that historians have taken [wrongly] as ‘typical’ of Christian – Muslim relations in Ethiopia”

36. Islamic Horn & East Africa 16th Century: marked by conflict – now drawing in European Christians Abyssinian Christians called upon newly arrived Portuguese Christians [next Lecture]: joined in ‘Crusade’ against Muslim Kingdoms Initially successful but Emperor feared power of new allies: expelled them

37. Islamic Horn & East Africa Offered opportunity for Muslim states to respond: Harar, Adal allied: launched jihad century saw constant conflict, alternating powers dominating : one point both Emir of Harar and Emperor of Ethiopia killed new enemies attacked from south: successful

38. Islamic Horn & East Africa Sultan of Adal and Troops (right) battling Christian EthiopianTroops (left)(16th c.)

39. Islamic Horn & East Africa Fate of Islamic State: Oromo neither Christian nor Muslim although many converted to Islam Harar retained autonomy but ‘power’ limited to large walled city: insignificant principality rather than influential Sultanate

40. Islamic Horn & East Africa [Robinson]: “Inside their walls the Hararis maintained their own religion, language and commercial life, but outside they had lost all influence, the Oromo blocking the life-giving trade with Zeila [to the Red Sea and ultimately, Indian Ocean]. The walls built . . . as a defence against the Ethiopians were now Harar's sole protection . . .”

41. Islamic Horn & East Africa Successor Emirs worked to attract Oromo-controlled commerce back to city: limited success coups, counter-coups between different Emirs - occasional attacks on Ethiopia in various alliances: usually unsuccessful - Harar retained autonomy until mid-to-late 19th c.

42. Islamic Africa: The ‘Horn’ Old Town Harar Modern Map Ethiopia showing Harar and Ancient Axum) Street in Old Harar

43. Islamic Africa: The ‘Horn’ One of Five Gates leadingto Old City Street to market (old wall visible on right)

44. Old Town of Harar encircled by Nur’s fortifications