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ENGLISH MEDICAL TERMINOLOGY - DIFFERENT WAYS OF forming MEDICAL terms

PhDr. Božena Džuganová, PhD. Comenius University, Jessenius Faculty of Medicine, Depart . of Foreign Languages, Martin, Slovakia . ENGLISH MEDICAL TERMINOLOGY - DIFFERENT WAYS OF forming MEDICAL terms. 1. Introduction - Situation in medical terminology

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ENGLISH MEDICAL TERMINOLOGY - DIFFERENT WAYS OF forming MEDICAL terms

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  1. PhDr. Božena Džuganová, PhD. Comenius University, Jessenius Faculty of Medicine, Depart.of Foreign Languages, Martin, Slovakia ENGLISH MEDICAL TERMINOLOGY - DIFFERENT WAYS OF forming MEDICAL terms

  2. 1. Introduction - Situation in medical terminology 2. Main types of word-formation derivation, compounding, multi-word phrases, abbreviation, acronyms, initialisms 3. Marginal types of formation of terms conversion, back-formation, clipping, calques,loanwords 4. Thetermswith a -nymending synonyms, eponyms, toponyms, mythonyms, and backronyms 5. Conclusion 6. References Contents

  3. Most anatomical terms used in medicine today, areLatin or Latinized Greek words, the origin of which can be traced back to the 5th century BC (Bujalková, 2011, 14). If medical terminology has to function effectively and be understandable to its users, the terms have to be formed, derived, and pronounced properly. 1. introduction

  4. Seminars on Latin and English or German medical terminology are an obligatory part of teaching programs in the first academic year at Slovak medical faculties. Basic information on word-formation and word-analysis enables the students to manage medical terminology in a more effective way. Instead of memorizing lists of terms they can easily predict the meaning of other terms.

  5. Increaseof new medicalbranches, e.g. Internal medicine: cardiology, endocrinology, gastroenterology, haematology, infectology, nephrology, oncology, pulmonology, rheumatology, etc. New diagnostic devices, treatment methods, and procedures computer tomograph (CT), sonograph, mammograph, laparoscope, endoscope, colonoscope, magnetic resonance image (MRI) New diseases AIDS, BSE (Bovine spongiform encephalopathy so-called mad cow disease), avian flu (virus H5N1), swine flu (virus H1N1), Ebola, etc. situation in medicine

  6. Two completely different phenomena: 1. A very precisely worked-out, internationally standardized anatomical terminology 2. A quickly developing clinical terminology of all medical branches, characterised by a certain terminological chaos. Situation in medical terminology

  7. 1. Formingnewnames 2. Formingnewmeanings 3.Borrowingwordsfromotherlanguages (Peprník, 1992, 7). 1. Morphologicalway(derivation, compounding, abbreviation) 2. Syntacticway(collocationsandmulti-wordphrases) 3. Semanticway(narrowingthemeaningofcommonwords; metaphoricandmetonymic transfer ofthepreviousmeaning) 4.Loanwordsfromotherlanguages (Poštolkováetal. 1983, 34) Ways of word-formation

  8. myocardiummyo- (prefix) meansmuscle, card(ium) (root) refers to theheart endocarditisendo- (prefix) meanswithin, card(root) refers to theheart, -itis (suffix) indicatesinflammation cytology cyt(o) (root) means cell, -logy (suffix) refers to study ofsomething gastroenterologygastr(o) (root) meansstomach, enter(o) (root)meansintestines, -logy (suffix) refers to study ofsomething adenomaaden(o) (root) meansgland, -oma (suffix) meanstumour 2. Main typesofwordformation-Derivation

  9. may be written: 1. as two/three words: blood pressure, blood group, heart attack,sleepwalker,central nervous system; 2. with hyphen: life-span, collar-bone, birth-control; or 3. as one word: eyeball, gallstone,hemophilia, leucocytopenia, pseudopolycytemia. There are no strictrulesofwritingthecompoundword. Occasionallysometerms are writtenwith a hyphen, occasionally as twoseparatewordsoroneword. E.g.: lifespan – life-span; gall bladder – gallbladder. Compound words

  10. Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome  AIDS Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy  BSE Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome  SARS Irritable Bowel Syndrome  IBS Multi-word phrases

  11. Graphic abbreviations: g (gram), h (hour), l (liter) • Graphic/phonetic ones: G.P. (General Practitioner) • Acronymic ones: AIDS • Initialisms: HIV, BSE, SARS, IBS Usageofinicialismsissofrequentthat in each text itisnecessaryfirst to introducethefullphrasewithitsabbreviation in brackets to avoidmisunderstanding, e.g. inicialismCML – canmeaneitherchronicmyeloidleukaemiu, orchronic monocyte leukaemia. Abbreviations

  12. Conversion: positionto position, lectureto lecture, blindto blind, to checkcheck-up Misuseofconversion by students: connection tissuesinstead of connective tissue, skeleton musclesinstead of skeletal muscles, nerve systeminstead of nervous system 3.Marginal Types of Word formation

  13. 3.Marginal Types of Word formation Back-formation:The word syringe was formed from its plural form syringes dropping-s, see Greek sg. syrinx, pl. syringes. The verbs euthanase or euthanize come from the noun euthanasia. Clipping: Back clipping: exam(ination), polio(myelitis), lab(oratory), doc(tor), Middle clipping: influenza Fore-clipping: (uni)versity

  14. polymorphonuclear neutrophilic leucocyte neutrophilic polymorphonuclear ----------------- poly--------------nuclear neutrophilic leucocyte polymorphonuclear -------------------- leucocyte --------------------------------- neutrophilic leucocyte ------------------------- -------- neutro-------------------cyte -------------------------- ------- neutrophil ------------------- prof.:polymorph ------------------------------------------------- poly----------nuclear -------------------------------------- poly ------------------------------------------------------------- Abbr. PMN (polymorphonuclear) type of clipping, blending and abbrev.

  15. are unwanted phenomena in medical terminology, however, their occurrence is relatively abundant and no branch of medicine can avoid them. Polysemy and synonymy accompany the development of each new branch of medicine. This situation is typical for a time of rushed forming of new terms and theoretical processing of scientific terminology (Horecký, 1968, 323). polysemy, homonymy and synonymy

  16. Greek/Latin term x Greek/Latin term erythrocyte x normocyte; neutrophil x polymorphonuclear leucocyte; antihaemophylic factor A x coagulation factor; asiderotic anaemia x sideropenic anaemia; haematopoiesis x sanguinification, Synonymy can appear in several levels:

  17. Greek/Latin x Englishtranslation (calque) erythrocyte – red blood cell (RBC); leukocyte – white blood cell (WBC); thrombocyte – blood platelet; monocyte – mononuclear cell; haematopoiesis – blood cell production; coagulation – blood clotting; haemolysis – blood destruction; haemostasis – arrest of bleeding. synonyms

  18. Greek/Latin term x several English calques erythrocyte – red (blood) cell x red (blood) corpuscle; phagocyte – phagocytic cell x defensive cell, or the colloquial expression scavenger cell; haematostasia – control of haemorrhage x control of bleeding x prevention of blood loss. synonyms

  19. While in the past, national medical terminologies often borrowed medical terms form Latin, nowadays this process of word-formation is rather unproductive. Loanwords are typical for the modern period. A great number of English scientific words have entered the language from French (Marchand, 1969). Examples: bowel, cartilage, cramp, curette, degeneration, deglutition, delivery, denture, diarrhoea, diphtheria, disease, dislocation, malaise, etc. loanwords

  20. 29 % of Latin origin 29 % of French origin 26 % of Germanic origin 6 % of Greek origin 6 % from other languages 4 % derived from proper names http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_English_words_of_French_origin loanwords

  21. Eponyms Toponyms Mythonyms Backronyms 4. Terms with a -nym ending

  22. The -onym words come from the Greek onyma meaning 'name'. Although this type of terms seems to be rare, the reverse is true. Of all the “-nyms” eponyms are the most frequent. Some authors also call this type of word formation ‘anthroponyms’ from the Greek wordánthropos meaning 'man' (Karenberg, 2005). • Medicine has been enthusiastic in naming tests, symptoms, and diseases after their discoverers. Some sources state there are about 8,000 eponyms (retrieved from http://www.whonamedit.com); others estimate their number to be up to 30,000 (Bujalková, 2011, 20). In some branches of medicine, there are even eponymic dictionaries. Eponyms

  23. Somediseases have beennamedafterthe persons who first described the condition or after a patient or literary figure who suffered such a disease. This usually involves publishing an article in a respectedmedicaljournal. Such was the case of a progressivedegenerative disorder of the CNS, named after the English doctor, James Parkinson, or of a special form of dementia studied and first described by the German neuropathologist, Alois Alzheimer, these two very serious diseases afflicting mainly the older generation nowadays. Eponyms

  24. Occasionally an eponymous disease may be named after a patient (examples include Christmas disease, Hageman factor, Hartnup disease, Mortimer's disease, and Lou Gehrig's disease). Christmas and Hageman were the first patients described with blood clotting disorders due to a deficiency of factor IX and factor XII. (Asimov, 1978; Wikipedia, 2012). Eponyms

  25. The unclear motivation of eponyms causes difficulties in their usage. They are often replaced by descriptive terms, e.g. Christmas diseasehaemophilia B. • The Bernard-Soulier Syndrome(B-SS) was originally described in 1948 by two physicians who were treating a patient with a bleeding problem.The eponym Bernard – Soulier syndrome is sometimes replaced by hemorrhagiparous thrombocytic dystrophy, or Giant Platelet Syndrome. Eponyms

  26. An advantage of eponyms is that they express a complex and very complicated concept in one word. • A disadvantage is that they have no meaning, which is why it is more difficult to remember them than descriptive multi-word terms. Only experts are familiar with eponyms; they have no exact scientific accuracy. • Usage of eponyms varies in different countries. Eponyms

  27. terms which use geographic names in naming some disease, disorder, syndrome, etc. • haemoglobin GPhiladelphia, haemoglobin MBoston. • haemoglobin MS(MSaskatoon), haemoglobin MM (MMilwaukee). • To limit usage of capital letters, new types of haemoglobin are named after laboratories, hospitals and cities where they were discovered e.g. haemoglobinNorfolk(Dorland's Illustrated Medical Dictionary, 1994, 748). toponyms

  28. Bornholm disease- named after the Danish island, Bornholm, where early cases occurred (Hopkins, 1950). • Lyme disease/Lyme borreliosis- originally thought to bejuvenilerheumatoidarthritis, was identified in three towns in south-eastern Connecticut in 1975, including the towns Lyme and OldLyme, which gave the disease its popular name (Steere, 2006). • Ebola hemorrhagic fevernamed after a river in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (formerly Zaire) in Africa (internet) toponyms

  29. are termsmotivated by Greekmythology(Karenberg, 2005) • Achilles tendon, narcissism, • Diogenes syndrome(a disorder characterized by extremeself-neglect, social withdrawal,compulsivehoardingofrubbish) • Oedipus complex(in psychoanalytic theory, a desire for sexual involvement with the parent of the opposite sex) mythonyms

  30. Apgar score, first used to ascertain the effects of obstetric anaesthesia on newborn babies. The rating system was devised by and named after Virginia Apgar 1. heart rate, 2. respiration, 3. muscle tone or activity, 4. reflex response to stimulation, and 5. colour Later a backronym was created using the letters of her name as a mnemonic device for the five scoring criteria: A- Appearance (Colour), P- Pulse (Heart rate), G- Grimace (Reflex irritability), A- Activity (Muscle tone), and R- Respiration. backronyms

  31. "Medicalterms are very much likeindividualjigsawpuzzles. They are constructedofsmallpiecesthatmakeeachwordunique, butthepiecescanbeused in differentcombinations in otherwords as well." (Chabner, D.E. 1996:1). 5. Conclusion

  32. Andrews, E. (1947): A History of Scientific English. The Story of its Evolution Based on a Study of Biomedical Terminology. Richard R. Smith, New York. • Asimov, I. (1978): Slovávĕdy. Co se zanimiskrýva? EdicePyramida – Encyklopedie. Nakladatelsví Panorama, Praha. • Besa, E. C. et al. (1992): Hematology. Harwal Publishing. p. 464 - 477. • Bujalková, M. (2011): Lekárskaterminológia v súčasnosm a historickomkontexte.UniverzitaKomenského Bratislava. • Caspar, Wolfgang (2007): MedizinischeTerminologie. Lehr- und Arbeitsbuch. Stuttgart, New York; Georg ThiemeVerlag. • Crystal, D.(1995): The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language, Cambridge University Press. • Crystal, David (2008): A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics, 6th Ed. Blackwell Publishers. • Dorland’s Illustrated Medical Dictionary. (1988): 28th Ed. W. B. Saunders Company. Philadelphia. • Hopkins J. H. (1950):Bornholmdisease. BMJ 1 (4664), 1230-2. • Horecký, J. (1984): Grécko-latinskéelementy v terminológii.Kultúraslova. 18 (5), 135-137. • Hrubiško, M. at al. (1981): Hematológia a transfúziológia. VydavateľstvoOsveta. • Hule, V. – Hrubiško, M. (1969): Hematologie a krevnítransfúze. Statnízdravotnickénakladatelství. Praha. • Karenberg, A. (2005): Amor, Äskulap & Co. - KlassischeMythologie in derSprachedermodernenMedizin.Stuttgart. Schattauer-Verlag. • Kronikamedicíny. (1994) Fortuna Print. Bratislava • Lekářskýslovníkanglicko-český, česko-anglický. (1985) Avicenum. Zdravotnickénakladatelství. Praha. 6. References

  33. Marchand, Hans (1969). The Categories and Types of Present-Day English Word-formation. München. C.H.Beck'scheVerlagsbuchhandlung.  • Merton R K (1973): What is a Name? The eponymic route to immortality.www.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_eponymous_diseases • Peprník, J. (1992): Anglickálexikologie. RektorátUniverzity Palackého. Filozofickáfakulta. Olomouc. • Poštolková, B. et al. (1983): O českéterminológii. Academia. Praha. • Šimon, F. (1989): O historickomvýskumemedzinárodnejlekárskejterminológie.Bratislavskélekárskelisty. 90 (1), 48–55. • Steere AC (2006). Lyme borreliosis in 2005, 30 years after initial observations in Lyme, Connecticut. Wiener KlinischeWochenschrift. 118 (21–22): 625–633. • Whitworth J. A. (2007): Should eponyms be abandoned? No. BMJ. September 1; 335(7617), 425. • World Health Organization. International statistical classification of diseases and related health problems.www.who.int/classifaications/apps/icd/icd10online • Woywodt, A. – Matteson, E. (2007): Should eponyms be abandoned? Yes. BMJ. September 1; 335 (7617), 425. • http://profiles.nlm.nih.gov/CP/Views/Exhibit/narrative/obstetric.html • http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dvrd/spb/mnpages/dispages/ebola/qa.htm http://en.wikepedia.org/wiki/List_of_English_words_of_French_origin • http://www.britannica.com • http://www.medicine.net.com • http://www.whonamedit.com 6. References

  34. Thank you for your attention. Have a niceday in rijeka.

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