American Imperialism

1. American Imperialism 1890-1930

2. Causes of US Imperialism • End of the frontier: 1890 report from the Superintendent of the Census • Foreign trade becoming increasingly important to American economy in late 19th c. • Desire to compete with Europe for overseas empires • Proponents of US expansion • Pan-Americanism; James G. Blaine • Samoan Crisis at Pago Pago

3. End of the frontier • Many Americans believed U.S. had to expand or explode • Increase in population, wealth, and industrial production demanded more resources • Some feared existing resources in US might eventually dry up • Panic of 1893 convinced some businessmen industry had over expanded resulting in overproduction and underconsumption • The experience of subjugating the Plains Indian tribes after the Civil War had established a precedent for exerting colonial control over dependent peoples

4. Foreign trade becoming increasingly important • Americans considered acquiring new colonies to expand markets further

5. Desire to compete with Europe for overseas empires • The influential minority sought international status for the US like the Great European Powers • Between 1870-1900, Europeans had taken over ⅕ of the land and 1/10 of the population of the world • Germany became America’s biggest imperialist foe and largely spurred the US into imperialism • Germany sought colonies in Africa, Asia, Latin America and the Caribbean

6. Proponents of US expansion • Captain Alfred Thayer Mahan: The Influence of Sea Power upon History (1890) • Thesis: Control of the seas was key to world dominance and empire • US should build a large navy and build defensive bases and refueling stations strategically placed on the world’s oceans • Take Hawaii and other Pacific islands • Advocated the US build a canal across the isthmus of Central America to link the Atlantic and Pacific oceans • Helped stimulate a naval race among the great powers • Persuaded “yellow journalist” to push for modern navy of steel ships • By 1898, the US had the 5th most powerful navy and by 1900 the 3rd

7. Proponents of US expansion • Josiah Strong: Our Country (1885) • Advocated superiority of the Anglo-Saxon civilization • Urged Americans to spread religion and democratic values to “Backward” peoples • The White Man’s Burden • Theodore Roosevelt and Henry Cabot Lodge • Social Darwinism meant earth belonged to the strong and fit- the US • Stronger nations dominating weak ones was part of natural law • If the US was to survive in competition of modern states, it too would have to become an imperial power • Senator Albert Beveridge: The American Republic is part of the movement of a superior race, ordained by God • The “Yellow Journalism” of Joseph Pulitzer and William Randolph Hearst stimulated American’s interest abroad

8. Pan-Americanism; James G. Blaine • Secretary of State under Presidents Garfield and B. Harrison • His “Big Sister” policy aimed to gain Latin American support of US leadership and to open Latin American markets to US products • Essentially guaranteed the US hegemony in Latin America in the 1880’s • First Pan-American Conference in Washington, DC held in 1889 • US proposals rejected by Latin American countries • Inter-American customs union not appealing because European goods were cheaper for Latin Americans • Hemispheric arbitration organization rejected due to fears of US dominance • Opened door for future hemispheric conferences

9. Samoan Crisis at Pago Pago • The US and German navies nearly engaged each other in 1889 over the Samoan Islands • Germany did not wish to provoke the US and agreed to a settlement • The Issue was resolved in 1900 via a treaty with Germany and Britain • The US gained 76 square miles - American Samoa including Pago Pago • Germany received the two largest islands • Britain was compensated with other territories in the Pacific

10. II. Venezuela Boundary Dispute, 1895-1896 • Boundary between British Guiana and Venezuela in dispute for over half a century • Issue became moot when gold was discovered in the border region • President Cleveland warned Britain not to take Venezuelan territory • Violated Monroe Doctrine; US stated it now called shots in Western Hemisphere • London should submit the dispute to arbitration • Britain denied legality of Monroe Doctrine and refused arbitration • Cleveland urged appropriation from Congress for commission of experts who would create an equitable border between Venezuela and British Guiana • If Britain refused to accept it, the US would go to war

11. II. Venezuela Boundary Dispute, 1895-1896 • Britain had no real urge to fight (despite a naval superiority of 32­ to 5 in battleship class warships) • Biggest reason for British concern: Boer War in South Africa • Canada still vulnerable • British merchant marine vulnerable to American commerce raiders • The British were preoccupied with a German naval threat and Russian & French unfriendliness • London consented to arbitration • Results • Prestige Monroe Doctrine enhanced • Latin American republics pleased by US determination to protect them • Britain courted the US for friendship in the face of the continental threat • Left US able to pursue aggressive foreign policy without British reprisals

12. III. Hawaii • Since early 19th century, America gradually came to regard Hawaiian Islands as an extension of the Pacific Coast • 1890, McKinley Tariff raised barriers against Hawaiian sugar • American sugar planters sought annexation as it would eliminate tariffs • Queen Liliuokalani, a nationalist, insisted Hawaiians should control Hawaii • White planters, mostly Americans, alarmed at the Queens policies and American tariff • Tiny minority of white planters led by Sanford B. Dole organized successful revolt in 1893 • Openly assisted by American troops who landed under unauthorized orders of US minister in Honolulu, John C. Stevens • Stevens: “The Hawaiian pear is now fully ripe and this is the golden hour for the US to pluck it” • Treaty for annexation rushed to Washington

13. III. Hawaii • Before the treaty could be passed through the Senate, Cleveland assumed office and refused to sign any annexation bill and sent a special investigator to Hawaii • Findings indicated majority of Hawaiians did not favor annexation • The Provisional government had been established by force • Cleveland ordered troops to be removed • Results • Cleveland was unsuccessful in reinstating the queen • US public opinion would not have tolerated force to unseat white planters • Revolutionaries proclaimed a Hawaiian Republic on July 4, 1894 with Dole as president • Annexation abandoned until 1898; Dole served as territorial governor from 1900­-1903 • First full fledged imperialistic debate in US history • Cleveland savagely criticized for trying to stem the new Manifest Destiny • Clevelands motives honorable in the face of international imperialism

14. IV. Cuba • Atrocities in Cuba were sensationalized (and even made up) by the yellow press • Spanish misrule as well as the devastating Wilson-Gorman Tariff of 1894 damaged Cuba’s sugar­-based economy (many plantations owned by Americans) ­­ • A new Cuban rebellion in the 1890s resulted in American property losses as well as Cuban and Spanish • Reconcentration- Spanish military concentrated masses of Cuban civilians in areas under their control • About 100,000 died between 1896 and 1898 • Spain’s leader in Cuba, Valeriano Weyler, portrayed in the US as Butcher Weyler • President Cleveland refused to intervene and issued neutrality proclamation • US mediation was offered in the conflict but Spain refused

15. IV. Cuba • Pulitzer and Hearst attempted to out do each other; lesser competitors also involved • Hearst sent artist Frederic Remington to Cuba to draw sketches • When Remington reported conditions not bad enough to warrant hostilities, Randolph allegedly replied, “You furnish the pictures & I’ll furnish the war” • Remington depicted Spanish customs officials as brutally disrobing and searching an American woman. (In reality, female attendants did the duty) • McKinley’s ascension to presidency began stronger rhetoric toward Spain • In autumn of 1897, McKinley came close to delivering an ultimatum to Spain that would have resulted in war • Spain ended reconcentration in 1897, removed Weyler, & gave some autonomy to Cubans • It appeared war might be avoided

16. IV. Cuba • Cuban Revolt • Spanish in Cuba rioted to protest Spain’s talk of granting a Cuban based self­ government • US sent Battleship Maine to Cuba in 1898 • Aimed to protect and evacuate Americans if danger occurred while also giving voice to popular distaste for Spain’s reconcentration policies • Sent ostensibly as a friendly visit • de Lome letter • Feb. 9, 1898, Hearst sensationally headlined a stolen private letter written by Spanish minister in Washington, Dupuy de Lome that portrayed McKinley as corrupt and indicated Spain lacked good faith in instituting reforms in Cuba • US uproar forced Dupuy de Lome to resign before US called for his recall

17. IV. Cuba • Explosion of Maine, Feb. 15, 1898; immediate cause of Spanish American War • 266 officers and men dead • Spanish investigation announced explosion as internal, presumably accidental • American version reported the blast was caused by a submarine mine • 1976 US Navy report showed the blast came from inside the ship and was accidental • Americans accepted the submarine mine view and leapt to conclusion that the Spanish government was responsible • Yellow press helped to fuel the public fire • Americans now cried for war: “Remember the Maine! To hell with Spain!”