The Americas

1. The Americas By David, Bhawanjot, Aaron, Kevin, Elton, and Dimitar

2. First Civilizations of the Americas 1200-250 B.C.E. • The Americas were isolated from the rest of civilization as migrations did not happen until 18,000-14,000 B.C.E. (Land Bridge Theory) • The first Mesoamerican civilization was the Olmec (1200-400 B.C.E.) • advanced cities, specialized workers, complex institutions, record keeping, and advanced technology • Although the remaining evidence (and lack of) indicates the unlikeliness of an empire, it’s cities were spread out over a large region (San Lorenzo, La Venta and Tres Zapotes) • literacy, complex religious rituals, class distinctions and specialized products for trade leave a lasting legacy for future civilizations such as the Maya (human sacrifices,ritualistic ball games, cacao) • jade carvings of of the jaguar-god found as far as the Pacific coast of Central America • Chavín developed in Andean South America (900B.C.E) • highlands area of Andes (Peru) , it’s capital was Chavín de Huántar • the capital was the intersection of trade routes, linking coastal regions with inland producers • leads to construction and maintenance of infrastructure from bridges to ceremonial centers • domesticated llamas, specialized in pottery, metallurgy , major trading center like the Olmec What took the Western Hemisphere so long? • Civilizations are built the same way: settled agriculture → population growth → political/social organization → TRADE • However, environmental differences of animal and plant variety held the Western Hemisphere back • main resources: llamas, obsidian,maize ,cacao ,clay • limited agricultural capacity prevented these societies from becoming empires • not to mention, they were the only civilizations that were not river valley varieties

4. 600 B.C.E. - 600 C.E. Mayan Empire: -Based in southern Mexico and parts of Central America -Collection of city-states that traded amongst each other, (salt, feathers, jade,cacao) ruled by god-king that performed religious ceremony to appease the gods -Very agricultural, used ridged field system and slash and burn to make maize, bean squash and cotton (cotton for textiles) -Built elaborately decorated pyramids and wrote in a language similar to hieroglyphics. Important temple: Chichen Itza -Golden age from about 500 CE to 800 CE -Developed complex calendar system during this time and concept of zero (this lead to the extremely accurate and famous Mayan calendar) -Built huge cities, Tikal being the most important political center (population: as many as 100,000) -Believed the universe had 3 parts: something similar to heaven, the place where humans existed and the underworld -Polytheistic : Believed the gods created humans out of maize (a huge part of their diet) and water -Also believed gods maintained good harvests in exchange for sacrifices -Majority were peasants (bottom class) while kings, priests, nobility and warriors at top (nobility was hereditary), with specialized workers and merchants in the middle -Fighting usually didn’t occur over land, but over slaves (due to humans being main source of labor, large animals were not available for use)

5. Maya Cont. -Cause of decline is for the most part, unknown. Theories: They exhausted surrounding environment, city-states fought amongst each other, the previous two combined with a large disaster (ex: drought) -Peak population of empire ~2,000,000 Other smaller cultures Pueblo people - Lived in south western U.S., native americans who lived in stone and dried clay houses Iroquois - Political alliance between Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, and Seneca tribes Mound Builders - Culture that built huge ‘mounds’ that they buried dead in along with gifts, last of which were the Mississippians Teotihuacon - City in middle of Mexico, over 20 huge pyramids dedicated to the gods, large population (~200,000)

7. Interaction Between Humans and the Environment (600 C.E. - 1450 C.E.) • Did not benefit as much from exchange of ideas and objects that accompanied contact between civilizations in Asia, Europe, and Africa. Several arguments made for this, including difficulty of exchanges in a north-south direction, rather than an east-west direction from Europe to Asia. • Did not have cultural unity like in Egypt or China. Had different societies that rose and fell over time (Maya, Toltec, Aztec, Inca). Often influenced each other. • Generally very hilly, with a few valleys. Adapted to topography of the land with agricultural technologies (e.g. terracing).

8. Development and Interaction of Cultures • Although societies rose at different times, they influenced each other greatly (IMPORTANT CONTINUITY) • Religion: • polytheism, huge temples for worship, human sacrifice. Gods determine good harvest. • sacrificed humans that were captured in wars • Maya: • most advanced intellectually • developed solar calendar and had a pictographic writing system • had a base 20 numeric system and developed the concept of zero • Inca: • used a quipu for record keeping, but did not have a central writing system • performed surgeries, used herbal remedies • Aztec: • developed calendar similar to the Maya • physicians able to set broken bones and fill in oral cavities

9. State-Building, Expansion, Conflict • All societies ruled by an absolute king, Toltecs had two • Maya were loosely organized into city-states • Trade conducted between the city-states, but mainly agricultural. • Aztecs and Inca developed empires • From their wars, Aztecs collected tribute along with captives. Inca also collected tribute from conquered lands. • Creation of an empire → increased trade • Inca had vast system of roads that helped them control the empire and allowed for easier trade.

10. Creation, Expansion, and Interaction of Economic Systems • Agriculture was the predominant economic practice. • Technological innovations led to increased agricultural production: • Clearing land of trees • Development of irrigation systems (waru waru) • Terracing • Chinampa system • Inca imposed a labor tax (mita) • Allowed for construction of extensive system of roads • Trade started to increase • With creation of empires, people could now freely trade within the empire’s territory

11. Development and Transformation of Social Structures • Society- social hierarchy • KING • Priests and warriors • Commoners- farmers, artisans, merchants • Slaves and peasants • King- divine right, absolute ruler • Priests- very important because of large role of religion in society • Same with warriors (brought back human sacrifices and tribute) • Women held some power in Mayan society • Two known female rulers • Instances of matrilineal descent • As new, more militaristic societies arise, women lose what power they have.

12. 1450 - 1750:Colonization of the Americas • Begins in the late 15th century, Columbus lands on American soil in 1492 • Portugal tries to contest for some American territory, leading to an agreement drawn up by the Pope called the Treaty of Tordesillas (1494), creating the Line of Demarcation • By the mid-1500s, Spain had colonized a large portion of Latin America, Portugal in Brazil. • The British and French expand in North America instead, starting in the early 1600s along the East Coast and in New England: think Virginia/Jamestown, Massachusetts/Pilgrims/Puritans • French colonization of Canada begins at around the same time, with New France in Quebec • All countries expand their territories until by 1750, Spain has taken all of Mexico, France acquires Louisiana, and Britain takes the northern reaches of Canada • Important names: for Spain, Columbus, Cortes, Pizarro • for France, Cartier, Champlain • for England, Hudson The Americas c. 1650

13. Effects of Old and New World Contact • The Columbian Exchange - the transfer of goods between Europe and the Americas during this time period, which brought a whole host of new items to each continent • Resulted in population growth in Europe because of the introduction of new, more nutritious crops like potatoes and maize. Europeans brought their own plants (and Asian plants), like bananas, sugar, and cotton, to America where they grew much better • Introduction of livestock (horses) to Americas changed Native American lifestyle dramatically, making them far more efficient hunters and warriors • Spread of disease around the globe - Amerindians were not resistant to most European diseases resulting in many of them dying

14. The Transatlantic Slave Trade and Plantation Life • Slaves were brought to America mainly to work on sugar plantations in Brazil and the Caribbean, but also as a major source of labor in most colonies • They travelled through the perilous “Middle Passage” of the Atlantic Circuit in which over 20% of the slaves died, because of brutal conditions and treatment by their white captors • Once arrived in America, conditions were not much better, with plantation owners forcing most slaves to work by fear of the whip. They had no time to rest and worked for as much time as humanely possible. High mortality rates that resulted forced the owners to buy more and more slaves to meet the labor demands of the farms. • There was also a small population of free black people in these slave countries, because of manumission and escaped slaves called maroons

15. Spanish Colonial Society • The Encomienda system in Spanish colonies - natives do forced labor for the colonists in plantations, mines, factories, ranking in the system was based on race • Caused huge numbers of Amerindian deaths because of harsh working conditions - laborers were overworked and punished or killed when they didn’t cooperate • Justified because the leaders entrusted with these workers would convert them to Christianity and save their souls, so they would work for the leader in return. In reality, these relationships were more like slavery than anything. • Many people were converted to Christianity, and people like Bartolome de Las Casas actually tried to advocate for the Amerindians • Few Spanish immigrants came to New Spain, and whites were always the minority • There were much larger populations of creoles, Africans, and people of mixed ancestry • Mestizos - mixed European and Amerindian, Mulattos - mixed European and African • Whites dominated the government and church, creoles controlled agriculture and mining Peninsulares Creoles Mestizos/ Mulattos Amerindians Africans/ Slaves The Hierarchy of Colonial Spain Highest -------------------------------------------> Lowest

16. English and French Colonial Life • Instead of slave labor, colonies in North America often used indentured servants because they were cheaper, until the slave mortality rate decreased enough that it became worthwhile to buy more slaves. • English colonies were ruled by a Crown-appointed governor and representatives from its towns (in Virginia called the House of Burgesses) • Major crops in the South included tobacco, rice, indigo; South Carolina in particular emulated the plantation colonies in the Caribbean and was the most hierarchical of the British colonies • Colonies in New England also had representative government, but did not have access to cash crops because of the climate. Grew via fur, timber, fish, and individual merchants making profit • New Amsterdam - originally established by the Dutch but taken over by the English in 1664. A very diverse city because it practiced religious tolerance • New France, based in Quebec, centered around the fur trade. Amerindians were treated as trading partners and allies rather than people to be exploited • In English colonies, the religion was basically determined by what religion the original settlers were. New England had Pilgrim and Puritan colonies, Pennsylvania was a Quaker colony initially • In Canada missionaries tried to convert Amerindians to Christianity, but mostly failed because the French gave the indigenous peoples more liberties

17. Late 1700’s: American and Haitian Revolutions • after 1763, the costly French and Indian War caused Britain to impose new laws and taxes on the thirteen colonies, which led to resentment and the phrase “No taxation without representation!” • ex: Proclamation of 1763, Stamp Act • leads to Boston Tea Party, Boston Massacre, tarring and feathering, boycott of British goods • resentment against the British culminate in the Revolutionary War (1775-1783) • colonists win due to French assistance, British military overconfidence, and strong leadership/military knowledge in George Washington • the Declaration of Independence approved in 1776 and the Constitutional Convention of 1787, which discusses how to establish a functional democratic government, lead to the most democratic government of the era • the American Revolution would inspire the French Revolution (Declaration of the Rights of Man) Haitian Revolution: • in 1789, the French colony of Saint Domingue was an extremely profitable sugar exporter but it relied heavily on the brutally mistreated African slave population • political turmoil in France begins to weaken authority of colonial administration, and the execution of Vincent Oge, returning leader of the gens de couleur delegation to Paris, results in revolt • after slavery is abolished by the National Convention in 1794, Toussaint L’Overture, a former domestic slave, leads all other former slaves destroying plantations and killing masters • in 1802, Napoleon’s reactionary regime executes L’Overture and temporarily reestablishes slavery, but L’Overture’s successors resist and declare independence in 1804 • Saint Domingue, now named Haiti, becomes the second independent nation in the Western hemisphere

18. 1800s: Revolutions Throughout South America Simon Bolivar and South American Liberation: • although Enlightenment ideas did have a role in causing revolutions to occur throughout South America, it was more due to the loss of legitimacy in Spain as a result of the Napoleonic invasion • in 1811, a militaristic junta seized control of the Venezuelan government, opposed by Spanish loyalists who still sided with local Spanish authorities • Simon Bolivar, son of wealthy Venezuelan planters, emerges as leader of the junta • “Any Spaniard who does not work against tyranny in behalf of this just cause will be considered an enemy and punished; as a traitor to the nation, he will inevitably be shot by a firing squad.” • as King Ferdinand VII agrees to accept a constitution limiting the powers of both the monarch and the church in 1820, Spanish loyalists deem this too liberal and their numbers decrease • Bolivar liberates present-day Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia, but fails to create a United States of South America due to regional differences among the colonies

19. 1800s: Revolutions Throughout South America (cont.) Mexico: • in 1810, Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla gives a speech inspiring thousands of rural and urban poor to rebel against the oppression of Spanish officials • in 1820, conservatives unsettled by Hidalgo ally with insurgents to create an independent Mexico • initially, Mexico was monarchical, but in 1823, the army overthrows the conservative leaders making Mexico a republic • one notable continuity is the hacienda system, which will play a large part in the Mexican Revolution of 1910 Brazil: • in 1808, the Portuguese royal family escaped Napoleon by seeking refuge in Brazil • in 1821, Napoleon’s defeat allows King John VI to return (reluctantly), leaving his son, Pedro as regent • Pedro I decides to declare Brazil independent from Portugal in 1822, as a result of the people’s dissatisfaction with Brazil’s economic ties to Portugal

21. Economics 1900- present World War 1 provided an opportunity for american businesses to increase production due to trade with other world powers, directly involved in the war The Americas, experience the Great Depression in 1929, proceeding well into the 1930’s caused by failure of the national and international banks. Due to worldwide failure the world erupts into what is called World War 2, dragging the United States to become a head producer of weaponry > most american businesses become inclined to produce military product > economy is prosperous Post-war America creates ties with Latin American and South American countries such to increase profit from their businesses and cash crops, create large imperialist regimes in the countries, controls government to some extent Cold War- America trades greatly with Korea and Japan for goods, strengthens their economies Other western countries (Mexico, Guatemala, Cuba, Latin America in general) depend on America as a source of trade for their single-good systems. > America controls most of West trade Due to numerous uprisings, America loses its grip on Western country economics > proceeds to create NAFTA, such to improve the trading sector in between Western countries America pushes for business in the middle east in Iran, and Saudi Arabia such to increase oil business (as well as in Mexico and Southern AMerica) > due to support of Israel, conflict in middle east - oil business, embargo on US Other western countries start to prosper economically by themselves> still depend on the United States for trade and business, lots of inflation due to corrupt governments in a number of countries in west…

22. Changes in politics + foreign policy 1900- present America intends to start globalizing economy in the early 1900s , to start imperialist movement that’s abandoned early on (1908) following Philippine annexation. > focus on helping modernize trade in Central America > OPEN DOOR POLICY for imperialist powers + Panama Canal ^0^ > doesn’t participate much in the First World War, production element introduced but, sent very few soldiers to front lines. Aided the Allies mostly (France, Britain, Russia) > later on helps organize the penalties and sanctions on Germany following > REFUSES to join the League of Nations. WW2, next moment of massive foreign intervention + politics -Pearl Harbor attacked by the Japanese in 1941 > pushed America into the war indefinitely, Ally support (end of isolationism policies previously highly regarded in nationhood) -Manhattan project (Nuclear bombs) + DDAY invasion > greatest contributions that the Americans had to the war effort apart from industry; most of America organized for War effort in industry America remains a democracy throughout the time period, due to very prominent ideals in society > pushes for democracy in Europe, especially during Cold War and post WW2 politics; CAPITALISM > COMMUNISM (late 20th)

24. Foreign policy 1900- present (cont.) 1919; Wilson presents Fourteen Points in Paris, calling for an association of nations • Treaty of Versailles prevented many of the severe demands, but promised aid of France during a time of attack Post WW2; Tensions Rise with the Cold War • Communist nations vs Western democracies (Soviet Union V the United States) • The Truman Doctrine - President Truman’s response to the spread of Communism by providing financial aid towards countries • Marshall Plan- Truman’s Secretary of State offered economic aid to countries facing the negative effects of WW2 • North Atlantic Treaty Organization(NATO) is created to prevent the advance of Communism (who responded with the Warsaw Pact) Foreign Policy • Korean War, Vietnam War & Cuban Missile Crisis • Responses to the rise of Communism with policies of containment,military aid and diplomacy • Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT) & Strategic Defense Initiative • eased relations until Soviets invaded Afghanistan • Muhammad Najibullah → Taliban → U.S. intervenes (justifies with the presence of al-Qaeda) • Was Kennedy too weak during crisis? • After the crisis was over, the closest that the U.S. and Soviet Union came to a nuclear war, Kennedy’s choice of diplomacy was criticized • a better means of communication was formed: détente

25. Changes in politics & foreign policy 1900- present (cont.) Latin American Movements Brazil -leadership of Vargas and President Kubitschek, promoted nationalized economy: industrialization & high tariffs on imports -1960s; President Goulart promote social equality with land distribution and general population voting power • led to military takeover in 1964 Argentina -falls under Peronism and totalitarianism, total political chaos follows due to conflicting factions > mass executions by military governments (lots of coups) -opposed foreign (U.S.) intervention , promoted industrialization, protection of workers and assisted the poor -controlled industries of Argentina, public viewed as fascism Guatemala -is thoroughly upheld by the States, government adopts democratic approach Cuba - Cuban Revolution, US ousted, communist based regime under Fidel Castro, embargo by US on Cuba Mexico establishes a democratic government (partially totalitarian - land reforms - lots of leaders killed in succession due to corruption and unhappiness of the people) US loses control over Mexican businesses, leaves country politically solitary America joins United Nations, NATO (opposition to communism), stays loyal to capitalistic views, promotes free government in the entire world. >Pushes for Israeli state- tension with middle east due to ideals, many wars held due to political controversy >> Iraq, Iran. Heavy patrol on terrorism following 9/11, patrols country for potential threats (patriot Act)

29. Culture and Religion Roles (1900-present) In America throughout the entirety of the 1900’s the Catholic church and Christianity were at the height of their control and influence > majority of AMericans sought peace and prosperity as a constant provided by the church. South America had great ties to Christianity as well > Argentina, Chile use the church as a backbone in their government. -people that wanted a communist government in those countries seen as atheists and against the church in Argentina during the uprising of military government (Dirty War) > church tries to protest against the atrocities the political world started to commit, in return, the government puts them down In Mexico, and the rest of LAtin AMerica the christian/Catholic church is the backbone to popular faith -in Cuba, Castro uses the church to support his campaign as they rally the people for a popular overthrow of Batista

30. Bibliography "Emerging Civilizations." Emerging Civilizations. International World History Project, Jan. 2007. Web. 13 May 2014.