Chapter 13 The Race for Empire and World War I

1. Chapter 13 The Race for Empire and World War I

2. Imperialism • Need for new markets and sources of raw materials • Capitalists seek to increase profits by gaining new markets, resources, and labor • Creates nationalistic rivalries • Strategic locations, especially naval bases • Imposition of superior culture, “white man’s burden” • Application of Social Darwinism • Missionaries, explorers, adventurers • British did not mix with or assimilate indigenous people; did not destroy cultures • French had policy of assimilation; encouraged learning French culture

3. Africa before World War I 1. By 1880 there were only pockets of European penetration into Africa, amounting to perhaps only ten percent of the continent. 2. France’s activities in Africa began in 1830 when it moved on Algeria but it was not until 1879 that French civilian rule was establish and substantial numbers of colonists were settled. In 1881-82 France and Britain agreed France should establish control over Tunisia in exchange for British control over Egypt. In 1912 Morocco was ceded to France as a protectorate by agreement between France and Germany. 3. British and French penetration of Egypt came as Ottoman governors Muhammad Ali and his grandson Ismail sought to build a state along western lines. Their modernization policies attracted substantial European investment and by 1876 Egypt owed foreign bondholders $450 million. When Egypt could no longer pay the debt, France and Britain forced appointment of their own commissioners to oversee Egyptian finances. A nationalist reaction was capped by bloody anti-European riots in 1882. Britain responded militarily and not only crushed the uprising but established direct British control that lasted from 1883 until 1922. 4. In southern Africa, the British seized the Dutch settlement of Capetown in 1795 as part of their war against France who occupied Holland. Britain’s fear was that France would use this location to interdict British Asian trade around the cape. The presence was made permanent in 1806. The Dutch farmers, Boers, resented the British and finally migrated north on the Great Trek in 1835. Eventually the Boers formed their own states but hostilities still existed and the two sides fell into war in 1899. The Boer War lasted until 1902 and ended with the defeat of the Boers. By 1910 the Boer states were integrated into the Union of South Africa. 5. The scramble for Africa in the late nineteenth century was initiated by the activities of Leopold II of Belgium (1865-1909) whose agents were exploiting the region along the CongoRiver. The Belgian activity alarmed the French who had signed treaties of protection in 1880 with Africans north of the Congo. Bismarck recognized the implications of the Belgian and British activities in Africa and called an international conference on Africa in 1884 to establish the rules for the occupation of Africa. Claims would now have to be based on "effective occupation." 6. German involvement in Africa began in 1884 when it created territorial protectorates over Togo, Cameroons, Southwest Africa, and German East Africa. 7. France pressed south from Algeria, east from its forts on the Senegal coast, and north from the Congo River. Britain pushed south from Egypt into the Sudan where they were temporarily halted at Khartoum by fiercely independent Muslims in 1885. The Muslim resistance was crushed in 1898 at Omdurman. Britain continued to push down the Nile to Fashoda which was held by the French. Unwilling to fight, France withdrew leaving the Sudan to Britain and settling for small territories in West Africa. 8. Only Liberia, protected by the United States as a former depository for freed slaves, and Ethiopia, with western arms and tactics, remained free from European control. Questions: 1. How did Britain and Belgium set off the scramble for Africa? 2. What advantages were to gained by carving out European colonies in Africa? Africa before World War I

4. The Struggle for South Africa 1. The Cape Colony was established in 1652 as a supply post for the Dutch East India Company trading between Asia and Holland. Already present were the native Khoisan and San (Bushmen) who were cattle herders and hunters with little desire to work for the Boers (Dutch farmers). In 1659 new settlers and the Khoisan clashed over land rights and cattle raids as adjacent lands were occupied by the Boers. Further complicating matters was the arrival of more settlers, including three hundred French Huguenots. By 1700 the colony extended one hundred miles from Cape Town and had a white population of 1600. A century later the boundaries had expanded to 300 miles north and 500 miles east. The population had grown to 20,000 whites. By this time most of the Khoisan had been eliminated by war and smallpox. A few survivors served as servants and laborers for the whites as did a growing number of mixed bloods. Black Africans from elsewhere in Africa and Malayans made up a slave majority of the population. 2. From the southeastern coast a Bantu-speaking people called the Nguni began expanding their territory. One of these groups were the Zulu under the leadership of Dingeswayo (1800-1818) who developed mass infantry tactics. He was succeeded by equally capable Shaka (1818-1828) who maintained a devastating internal war known as the infecane that witnessed destruction and depopulation of the southeast. By 1824 he governed perhaps a quarter of a million people. Virtual chaos characterized north and south of Zululand. 3. In 1795 Britain temporarily occupied the Cape Colony to prevent it from falling into the hands of Napoleon's navy. Following a brief interruption between 1803 and 1806, the occupation became permanent. Resentful of British religious, political, and racial attitudes, especially the abolition of slavery in 1834, several thousands of Boers migrated en masse between 1835 and 1841 across the Orange River to the grassy plains called the veld. The Great Trek resulted in wars against the Zulu and Xosa people and ultimately the formation of two autonomous and racist republics after 1850, the Orange Free State and Transvaal. Failure to occupy Natal resulted in British annexation in 1845 when it was made a dependency of the Cape Colony. Transkei became a refuge for displaced people caught up in the African and white wars. Between 1871 and 1894 colonial controls were extended over the area by the Cape Colony. The Zulus chafed at being encircled and between 1877 and 1881 there were several confrontations that eventually resulted in the area's annexation to Natal in 1897. 4. Diamonds were discovered on the borders of the Cape Colony in 1868 and gold in Transvaal in 1885. Thousands of Englishmen flooded the area and soon Britain annexed the territory on the eastern and western borders of Transvaal. As tensions rose between the British and the Boers, war broke out in 1899 ending in 1902 with a Boer surrender. Question: 1. Why did the British and Boers struggle in southern Africa? The Struggle for South Africa

5. Partition of Africa • Berlin Conference of 1884; Brussels Conference, 1890 • Colonial territories cut across ethnic lines • Britain and France clashed over the Sudan • African resistance • Militant Muslims • Mahdi • Ethiopia and Liberia remain independent • South Africa seized by Britain • Zulus in South Africa • Boers – Transvaal and Orange Free State • Boer War, 1899-1902

6. Imperialism in the Middle East and Asia • Ottoman Empire • Mahmud II • Reorganize the army • Berlin to Baghdad railroad • Declaration of the Rose Chamber • Tanzimet • Deep-seated religious and cultural attitudes • French seize Algeria, 1830 • Egypt • Muhammad Ali • Suez Canal • British occupation,1882 • Decline of industrialization and increase in agriculture

7. Eastern Question • Concern about Russia • Expansion around the Black Sea, 1702-1820 • Balkans; Greek Revolution, 1821-1830 • Ottoman regime propped up to forestall Russian influence and Muhammad Ali’s designs • Crimean War, 1853-1856 • Britain, France, Austria-Hungary guarantee Ottoman independence and territory

8. India under British Rule, 1805-1931 1. By act of Parliament in 1814 that renewed the British East India Company for twenty years, India was opened to commerce from all British subjects (China and East Asia, however, remained a monopoly). By 1834 in the wake of sentiment for free trade, the Company lost its trading privileges, except for opium to China. Nevertheless, the Company continued to serve as a governmental agency. 2. Britain disastrously intervened into independent Afghanistan in 1838-1839. Neutral Sind was used as a military base during the war and soon the ruling princes were deposed. In 1849, after two wars against the powerful Sikhs, the Punjab was annexed. A second Afghan war from 1878 to 1881 resulted in a portion of Afghanistan being brought into India thereby creating the northern border. In the east, annexation of Lower Burma in 1852 gave Britain control of the Bay of Bengal. 3. British India consisted of eleven provinces, most of which were under governors (Englishmen) appointed by the queen and answerable to the viceroy. Ruling over the internal affairs of the Indian states was the local raj (prince). There was also present in the states a resident British official appointed by the viceroy to control the state's relations with other states and countries. 4. On May 9, 1857, sepoy troops (Indian mercenaries originally hired by the East India Company to protect British interests) stationed near Delhi rebelled. The rebellion quickly spread to Lucknow and Cawnpore. The Great Mutiny was the culmination of resentment over high handed acts of the governor-general and rumors of Christian missionaries coercing Hindus and Muslims to convert to Christianity. Among the immediate causes were concerns by troops that the paper cartridges for the new Enfield rifles were covered with animal fat and the necessity of biting open the cartridge would cause Hindus and Muslims ritual pollution. There was also concern over letting Sikhs, Gurkhas, and lower castes into the army. Within a few weeks the Ganges plain was under rebel control. By 1858, the revolt was put down as British forces were supplemented by Sikhs from the Punjab and Gurkhas from Bengal. That same year the British crown took direct rule of India. 5. One effect of the Revolt of 1857 was the creation of “cantonments” segregating the white masters from “untrustworthy” natives. 6. The Government of India Act of 1919 sought reform but did little, The franchise was restricted to property owners who were no more than three percent of the population. Moreover, the electorate was divided by granting separate representation to religious communities, landowners, and other special interest groups. Indian anger was met by harsh repression. To halt rioting in the Punjab, troops were sent to Amritsar where troops opened fire on an unarmed crowd on April 13, 1919. Killed were 379 and 1137 were wounded (a total of 1650 rounds were fired). 7. In 1921 Mohandas Gandhi was given sole executive authority by the Indian National Congress. He immediately launched a campaign of civil disobedience in accordance with satyagraha. 8. In March 1930 Gandhi led 78 followers on a “Great Salt March” to the seacoast 200 miles away to gather salt in protest of the salt tax and its burden on the poor. Indians responded to Gandhi’s defiance with strikes. Gandhi and others were jailed but the civil disobedience campaign continued. Finally, the government capitulated. Gandhi and his followers were released and the salt tax reduced. Questions: 1. How did Britain exercise authority over India? 2. What were the sources of conflict between Britain and the Indians? India under British Rule, 1805-1931

9. Imperialism in Asia • Qajar dynasty in Iran, 1779-1920s • Competing imperial ambitions of Britain and France; established spheres of influence • India • English East India Company • Sepoy Rebellion, 1857 • Queen Victoria proclaimed Empress of India, 1876 • Economic development • British impact on culture and society • English educated Indians want application of the principles of liberty

10. Victorial Railway Station, Bombay. Shows combination of Gothic and Mughal style architecture popular in India during the Victorian era

11. Imperialist Confrontation in Asia • France annexed Cochin China, 1840, and expanded into Cambodia, Laos, and the rest of Vietnam • Britain took Burma as a buffer to the French and later into the Malay Peninsula • British-Russian rivalry over Afghanistan • Settlement • Attacks on the Ch’ing Empire in China • Decline of the Manchus • Wars against China, 1839-1885 results in unequal treaties • Loss of territories • Spheres of influence, fixed tariffs, extraterritoriality

12. Japanese Overseas Expansion During the Meiji Era 1. At the time when Commodore Matthew Perry opened up Japan to trade by gunboat diplomacy in April 1853, the emperor was a figurehead with real power in the hands of the shogun with the aid of the warrior nobility, the samurai. A wave of anti-foreignism between 1858 and 1863 resulted in allied naval attacks by the American, British, Dutch, and French navies, demonstrating the weakness of the shogun government. In 1867 patriotic samurai seized the government and restored the power of the Meiji emperor thereby initiating the Meiji Era. By 1890 Japan had established an authoritarian constitution with vast powers to the emperor and his minister. 2. Japan soon copied western imperialism. Having opened Korea in 1876, Japan defeated Korea in 1894 and secured Taiwan, the Pescadores Islands, the Kwantung peninsula in South Manchuria. Russia, France, and Germany forced Japan to give up the Guandong peninsula. In 1897 Russia took Kwantung for itself. 3. Japanese and Russian imperialism clashed over Manchuria and Korea in 1904 over which both had cast covetous eyes. Attacking the Russian fleet at Port Arthur without warning February 8, 1904, Japan emerged victorious in 1905. Japan took Russia's protectorate over Port Arthur and the Kwantung peninsula, Karafuto, the Russian railway in south Manchuria, and achieved recognition of Japan's "paramount interest" in Korea. In 1910 Korea was formally annexed, to be called Chosen. 4. In 1902 Japan and Britain formed a military alliance. When World War I broke out Japan entered as Britain's ally. Although Japan played a minimal military role, it was rewarded with the German possessions in East Asia and the Pacific -- Kiaochow Bay and the port of Qingdao on the coast of Shandong. Questions: 1. How did Japan emulate western imperialism? 2. What was the consequence of war between Russia and Japan? Japanese Overseas Expansion during the Meiji Era

13. Japan • Beginning of the Meiji Era, 1868 • Zaibatsu • Westernize government, economy, education, military • Imperialism • War against China over Korea, 1894 • War against Russia over Manchuria, 1904 • Annexation of Korea, 1910 • United States • Populism and Progressivism • Spanish-American War gains Cuba and Puerto Rico • Support Panama’s independence, 1903; the Panama Canal • Monroe Doctrine and Roosevelt Corollary • Dollar Diplomacy

14. Europe in 1914 1. The Three Emperors' League, created by Bismarck in 1873 to counter any threat from France, consisted of Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Russia. The failure of Germany to support Russia at the Congress of Berlin in 1878 resulted in Russian withdrawal from the league. Fearful of an anti-German alliance featuring France, Russia, and Austria, Bismarck made a defensive alliance with Austria in 1879. Each would support the other in the event of an attack by Russia. In 1882 the alliance was enlarged with the addition of Italy which had conflicting ambitions with France over North Africa. This Triple Alliance provided protection against France. Although the alliance had only a five year term, it was regularly renewed. 2. The Three Emperors’ League was reconstituted in 1881 when Russia returned but collapsed in 1886 over the Austrian-Russian rivalry in the Balkans. In 1887 Germany and Russia pledged in the Reinsurance Treaty to remain neutral if the other became involved in a war with a third power. 3. In 1890 Emperor William II (1888-1918) dismissed Bismarck and personally took over direction of foreign policy. His decision to drop the Reinsurance Treaty led Russia to conclude a military alliance with France in 1894. 4. France signed the Entente Cordiale with Britain in 1904 out of fear that Britain and Germany had resolved their differences. This agreement had no military provisions and was intended to resolve the colonial differences of the two states. Britain and France were successful in achieving this. 5. Britain was somewhat encouraged by the Japanese victory in the Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905) and the outbreak of the Russian Revolution of 1905 since both left Russia weakened. Nevertheless, there was concern that Russia could drift back toward Germany. Thus, in 1907 Britain concluded an agreement with Russia similar to the one signed with France. Again the differences, especially those in Asia, were resolved. 6. Having settled their sources of friction, Britain, France, and Russia were tied together in an informal yet powerful association, the Triple Entente. Questions: 1. Why was it important for Bismarck to bring together Russia, Germany, and Austria-Hungary into an alliance? 2. Why did Britain resolve its differences with France and Russia? 3. Why did France need a European ally? Europe in 1914

15. Expansion in Asia • Gained the Philippines from Spain • Annexation of Hawaii, 1898 • Open Door policy • Causes of World War I • Nationalism, armaments race, alliances • Diplomacy of Bismarck isolated France • League of Three Emperors, 1873 • Triple Alliance, 1881 • Reinsurance Treaty, 1887; not renewed • Entente Cordiale, 1904 • Triple Entente, 1907

16. The Balkan States, 1914 • 1. The continued disintegration of the Ottoman Empire in the nineteenth century made the Balkans increasingly vulnerable, especially to Austria and Russia. For Russia, the eastern Balkans represented the shortest overland route to Istanbul and the straits. Austria saw the area as a fertile ground for expansion. In 1876 Serbia and Montenegro (nominally under Turkish control) declared war on the Turks but were defeated. This was followed by a Russian declaration of war and defeat of the Turks. The Treaty of San Stefano in 1878 created a large Bulgarian state that became a Russian satellite. This altering of the balance of power in the Balkans, especially the potential for Russian control of the Dardanelles Strait, prompted the other European states to call a congress to discuss the treaty. • 2. The Russian treaty was undone by the Europeans meeting in Berlin in 1878. The Congress of Berlin decided to reduce the size of Bulgaria by two-thirds and deny it access to the Aegean Sea. The remainder of its territory was returned to Turkey. The states of Serbia, Montenegro, and Romania were recognized as independent. Bosnia and Herzegovina were placed under the protection of Austria, but not to be annexed. Russia was naturally angered by the proceedings. It was especially upset that its ally Germany had done nothing to protect Russia and thus withdrew from the Three Emperors' League. • 3. All of the Balkan states ware upset with the Berlin settlement. Especially resentful were Montenegro and Serbia which were angered by the Austrian occupation of Slavic Bosnia and Herzegovina. • 4. In 1885 Bulgaria, which was granted some degree of autonomy by the congress, seized the Turkish province of East Rumelia. The independent Kingdom of Bulgaria was proclaimed in 1908. • 5. By the beginning of the twentieth century, nationalism was on the rise in the Balkans. The Serbs, a Slavic people, looked to Slavic Russia to support their political aspirations. In order to block Serbian expansion and at the same time take advantage of Russian impotency following a revolution of 1905, Austria in 1908 formally annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina. Under the terms of the Congress of Berlin in 1878, Austria was to administer the two regions. Serbia, its own hopes of taking the territory dashed, was outraged. Supported by Russia, Serbia preparedfor war. Germany warned Russia that it must accept the annexation or face war. Afraid to risk a confrontation at this time, Russia backed down, thereby forcing Serbia to do the same. • 6. In 1912 the Balkan League consisting of Serbia, Bulgaria, Montenegro, and Greece defeated the Turks in the First Balkan War. Taken from the Turks were Macedonia and Albania. The allies, however, could not decide now to divide the conquered territory and soon fell to fighting. The Second Balkan War broke out in 1913 when Greece, Serbia, Romania, and Turkey united to defeat Bulgaria. In the peace, Bulgaria obtained only a small portion of Macedonia while the rest was divided between Serbia and Greece. Significantly, Austria intervened in the Second Balkan War to force Serbia to give up Albania which had become independent. • Questions: • 1. Why were Austria and Serbia at odds over the Balkans? • 2. What was the role of nationalism in the Balkan wars? • 3. What resentments were building in the Balkans that could kindle a third Balkan war? • 4. Why was there sparing over the Balkans by the European powers? • 5. Why were some European states concerned about the provisions of the Treaty of San Stefano? • 6. How were the conditions of the Balkans in the late nineteenth century shaping future events of the early twentieth century? The Balkan States, 1914

17. Conflicts and Compromise, 1907-1914 • Germany and France over Morocco, 1911 • Austrian annexation of Bosnia and Herzgovina, 1908 • First Balkan War, 1912 • Second Balkan War, 1913 • Outbreak of War • Assassination of Archduke Francis Ferdinand, June 28, 1914 • Black Hand • Serbia • “Blank check” of Germany to Austria • Austria declares war on Serbia, July 28, 1914 • Germany’s Schlieffen Plan • Germany declares war on Russia, August 1; France, August 3; Britain declares war, August 4

18. World War I, 1914-1918 1. Facing a two front war in which Austria was to hold off Russia, it was necessary that the 1905 Schlieffen Plan adopted by Germany be successful. Since the plan called for troop movement through neutral Belgium to attack Paris, it was essential that German troops be permitted to cross. When Belgium refused, Germany invaded thereby invoking an 1839 treaty with Britain that guaranteed Belgian neutrality. Stiff resistance, however, slowed the German attack. French and British forces staged an orderly retreat to about twenty miles outside of Paris at the Marne River where they struck on September 6, 1914, at a gap in the German lines. After four days the Germans fell back. 2. Stalemate followed the battle of the Marne as each side began to dig trenches to protect itself. By November there was an unbroken line of parallel trenches from the English Channel to Switzerland. The unconventional trench warfare caught the generals on both sides unprepared since they were trained for wars of movement and maneuver. Without imagination, their only plan was to throw masses of men against enemy lines to force a breakthrough. The tactic resulted in slaughter. In 1916, the Germans initiated a campaign to capture the French fortress of Verdun 125 miles east of Paris. After ten months, the losses totaled 700,000 men for both sides. To take pressure off Verdun, in July the British launched an attack along the Somme River. Fighting through October, the battle of the Somme cost British and French forces 600,000 soldiers to gain 125 square miles. The German losses were 500,000. 3. When hostilities began, Russia pushed into eastern Germany and Austria but was stopped at Tannenberg in August 1914 where an entire Russian army was captured. At Masurian Lakes two weeks later Russia suffered another defeat and heavy losses. A third failed offensive against the Austrians in June 1916 featured a German counter-offensive resulting in Russian losses of one million men. Lenin's desire to pull Russia out of the war led to the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk signed March 3, 1918. By its terms Poland, Finland, and the Baltic states were placed under the control of Austria and Germany. The Ukraine became independent. To Germany's ally Turkey was ceded part of the Transcaucasia. The losses amounted to 26 percent of Russia's total population, 27 percent of its arable land, 26 percent of the railway system, 33 percent of its manufacturing industries, 73 percent of the iron industry, and 75 percent of Russia's coal fields. (G. Vernadsky in Nicholas V. Riasanovsky, A History of Russia, third ed., p. 529) 4. Germany began a spring offensive in March 1918 and pushed within thirty-five miles of Paris but were stopped in July in the second battle on the Marne. An Allied counter-offensive now pressed on into Germany. On November 9, 1918, Emperor William II abdicated. Question: 1. How important was the Russian failure to defeat the Germans? World War I, 1914-1918

19. Stalemate on the Western Front • Ultimate failure of the Schliffen plan at Battle of the Marne, September 1914 • Trench warfare, 500 miles long • Unimaginative generals • Carnage of battle • Eastern Slavery • German victories at Tannenberg and Masurian Lakes • Limited Russian access and huge human loses • War Outside Europe • Japan seizes many German possession in Asia • Britain and France take German colonies in Africa

20. Ottoman Empire allied with the Central Powers • Failure at Gallipoli Peninsula, 1915 • Home Front • Total war • Military dictatorship created in Germany • Control of economic organizations and life • Censorship • Propaganda • Women auxiliaries • Volunteer and paid nurses • Fill jobs formally by men • Consequences of economic independence • Gain voting rights

21. U.S. Entry into the War and German Collapse • Germany declares war zone around Britain • Submarine sinks Lusitania, May 1915 • Germany declares restricted submarine warfare • Allied blockade on Germany • Return to unrestricted submarine warfare, February 1917 • Attempts to entice Mexico to attack the U.S. • April 6, 1917, U.S. declares war on Germany • Spring 1918, German offensive • Failure by August • Armistice, November 11, 1918

22. Territorial Changes in Europe and the Middle East after World War I 1. France, seeking lasting security, wanted to create a buffer state between itself and Germany in the Rhineland. This was opposed by Woodrow Wilson and David LLoyd George who believed it would be a violation of the principle of national self-determination. The French gave up the demand in return for a defensive alliance with Britain and the United States. Nevertheless, France did gain the return of Alsace and Lorraine as was specified in point eight of the Fourteen Points. Also, German land west of the Rhine River (the Rhineland) was to be demilitarized to serve as a barrier between France and Germany. 2. Northern Schleswig was surrendered to Denmark. 3. To compensate for German destruction of France's coal resources during the war, the coal mines of the rich Saar Basin were ceded to France to be exploited for fifteen years (after which the German government could buy them back). The region was placed under the administration of the League of Nations until 1935 at which time a plebiscite was to be held to determine whether the area was to remain under the League, be returned to Germany, or be awarded to France. 4. Most of the German territories of Posen and West Prussia were surrendered to independent Poland. This would give the Poles access to Danzig (modern Gdansk) on the Baltic Sea by a corridor which would cut through Germany, separating East Prussia from the rest of the German states. Danzig was placed under the administration of the League. 5. The Treaty of St. Germain (1919), which settled the war with Austria, forced several concessions. Austria had to recognize the independence of Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, and Poland. All of the states were ceded parts of Austria. To Italy, Austria had to surrender Trieste, the south Tyrol, and the Istrian Peninsula. 6. The Treaty of Neuilly (1919) settled the war with Bulgaria and it had to cede lands to Romania, Yugoslavia, and Greece. The Treaty of Trianon Palace (1920) required Hungary as a former belligerent to surrender Slovakia to Czechoslovakia, Transylvania to Romania, and Croatia-Slovenia to Yugoslavia. The Treaty of Sevres (1920) required among other things for Turkey to give up European territory to Greece. This was abrogated in 1922 when Turkish nationalists under Mustapha Kemal (Ataturk) seized the lands. 7. By 1922 the Bolsheviks had ended the civil war in Russia and had stabilized their frontier boundaries by making cessions of Russian territory to Finland, Latvia, Estonia, Poland, and Romania. Significantly, the peace settlement made Finland, Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania independent. 8. The disappearance of the old Ottoman Empire resulted in Palestine and Iraq being placed under the control of Britain while Syria and Lebanon were turned over to the French as mandates under the League of Nations. Questions: 1. How was the settlement of 1919 unsatisfactory? 2. What could be the possible implications of ethnic Germans being placed under newly created governments, thus becoming minorities? Territorial Changes in Europe and the Middle East after World War I

23. Postwar Settlement • Paris Peace Conference and Versailles Treaty • Fourteen Points by Woodrow Wilson, January 1918; ultimately mostly disregarded • France seeks security; Britain wants to assure no state dominates Europe and covets German and Ottoman colonies • Demilitarize the Rhineland • Return to France, Alsace and Lorraine • Territory ceded by Germany to reconstructed Poland • Saar Valley placed under international control • Loss of German colonies • German reparations ultimately set at $33 billion • German war guilt

24. Settlement with other Central Powers • Treaty with Austia-Hungary, 1919 • Independent Czechoslovakia, Poland, and Yugoslavia • Austria and Germany cannot unite • Bulgaria lost territory and outlet to the Mediterranean • Treaty with Turkey, 1920 • Lost lands occupied by Arabs; Anatolia partitioned • Mustafa Kemal, Atatürk • Drives allies from Anatolia, Istanbul, and territory around Istanbul • Arab Ottoman territories divided into mandates

25. Criticism of the Peace Treaty • The League of Nations • All treaties contained the Charter for the League • Peaceful resolutions of international disputes • United States never joins • Decision required unanimity • Germany under the Weimar Republic • Government democratic but controlled by conservatives • Economic problems • France and Belgium occupy the Ruhr, 1923 • Quest for International Security • Locarno Pact, 1925 • Washington Disarmament Conference, 1921-1922 • Kellogg-Briand Pact, 1928

26. The 1920s • Economic hardship, cynicism, lack of direction, 1919-1924 • Economic recovery, 1925-1928 • International competition in agriculture drove down prices • Red Scare and racism in the United States • Britain deals with Ireland and “home rule” • The Great Depression • Economic boom in U.S. leads to individual debt • Economic slowdown in U.S. agriculture and exports, 1929; overproduction • Withdrawal of U.S. capital from Europe • Solutions: New Deal, “dole”, reforms • Collapse of Japanese democracy