cognition

1. 7 cognition

2. Learning Objectives • LO 7.1 Mental Images and Concepts in Thinking • LO 7.2 Solving Problems and Making Decisions • LO 7.3 Failures of Problem Solving and Creative Thinking • LO 7.4 The Definition of Intelligence • LO 7.5 Measuring Intelligence and How Intelligence Tests Are Constructed • LO 7.6 Intellectual Disability and Its Causes • LO 7.7 Giftedness and Does Giftedness Guarantee Success • LO 7.8 The Influence of Heredity and Environment on Intelligence • LO 7.9 Language, Its Different Elements, and the Structure of Language • LO 7.10 Language, Thinking, and Are Animals Able to Learn Language • LO 7.11 Ways to Improve Thinking

3. Thinking and Mental Images LO 7.1 Mental Images and Concepts in Thinking • Thinking (cognition): mental activity that goes on in the brain when a person is organizing and attempting to understand information and communicating information to others • Mental images: mental representations that stand for objects or events and have a picture-like quality

4. Concepts LO 7.1 Mental Images and Concepts in Thinking • Concepts: ideas that represent a class or category of objects, events, or activities • Superordinate concept: the most general form of a type of concept, such as “animal” or “fruit” • Basic level type: an example of a type of concept around which other similar concepts are organized, such as “dog,” “cat,” or “pear”

5. Concepts LO 7.1 Mental Images and Concepts in Thinking • Subordinate concept: the most specific category of a concept, such as one’s pet dog or a pear in one’s hand • Formal concepts: concepts that are defined by specific rules or features • Natural concepts: concepts people form as a result of their experiences in the real world

6. Concepts LO 7.1 Mental Images and Concepts in Thinking • Prototype: an example of a concept that closely matches the defining characteristics of a concept • a platypus is a “fuzzy” natural concept

8. Concept Formation • Thus, categorizing has less to do with features that define all members of a concept and has more to do with features that characterize the typical member of a concept. • The most representative members of a concept are known as prototypes.

9. When Is It a “Cup,” and When Is It a “Bowl”?

10. Fuzzy Boundaries • Determine whether something belongs to a group by comparing it with the prototype. • Objects accepted and rejected define the boundaries of the group or concept. • This is different for different people.

11. Problem Solving LO 7.2 Solving Problems and Making Decisions • Problem solving: process of cognition that occurs when a goal must be reached by thinking and behaving in certain ways • Trial and error (mechanical solution): problem-solving method in which one possible solution after another is tried until a successful one is found

12. Problem Solving LO 7.2 Solving Problems and Making Decisions • Algorithms: very specific, step-by-step procedures for solving certain types of problems

13. Problem Solving LO 7.2 Solving Problems and Making Decisions • Heuristic: an educated guess based on prior experiences that helps narrow down the possible solutions for a problem; also known as a “rule of thumb” • representative heuristic: assumption that any object (or person) sharing characteristics with the members of a particular category is also a member of that category

14. Problem Solving LO 7.2 Solving Problems and Making Decisions • Heuristic (cont’d) • availability heuristic: estimating the frequency or likelihood of an event based on how easy it is to recall relevant information from memory or how easy it is to think of related examples • Means–end analysis: heuristic in which the difference between the starting situation and the goal is determined and then steps are taken to reduce that difference

15. Problem Solving LO 7.2 Solving Problems and Making Decisions • Insight: sudden perception of a solution to a problem

16. Problem-Solving Barriers LO 7.3 Failures of Problem Solving and Creative Thinking • Functional fixedness: a block to problem solving that comes from thinking about objects in terms of only their typical functions • Mental set: the tendency for people to persist in using problem-solving patterns that have worked for them in the past

17. The Candle Problem

18. Problem-Solving Barriers LO 7.3 Failures of Problem Solving and Creative Thinking • Confirmation bias: the tendency to search for evidence that fits one’s beliefs while ignoring any evidence that does not fit those beliefs

19. Figure 7.2 The String ProblemHow do you tie the two strings together if you cannot reach them both at the same time?

20. Figure 7.2 (continued) Solution to the String ProblemThe solution to the string problem is to use the pliers as a pendulum to swing the second string closer to you.

21. Figure 7.3 The Dot ProblemCan you draw four straight lines so that they pass through all nine dots without lifting your pencil from the page and without touching any dot more than once?

22. Figure 7.3 (continued) Solution to the Dot ProblemWhen people try to solve this problem, a mental set causes them to think of the dots as representing a box, and they try to draw the line while staying in the box. The only way to connect all nine dots without lifting the pencil from the paper is to draw the lines so they extend out of the box of dots—literally “thinking outside the box.”

23. Creativity LO 7.3 Failures of Problem Solving and Creative Thinking • Creativity: the process of solving problems by combining ideas or behavior in new ways • convergent thinking: type of thinking in which a problem is seen as having only one answer, and all lines of thinking will eventually lead to that single answer, using previous knowledge and logic

24. Creativity LO 7.3 Failures of Problem Solving and Creative Thinking • Creativity (cont’d) • divergent thinking: type of thinking in which a person starts from one point and comes up with many different ideas or possibilities based on that point (a kind of creativity)

26. Intelligence LO 7.4 The Definition of Intelligence • Intelligence: the ability to learn from one’s experiences, acquire knowledge, and use resources effectively in adapting to new situations or solving problems

27. Theories of Intelligence LO 7.4 The Definition of Intelligence • Spearman’s Theory • g factor: the ability to reason and solve problems; general intelligence • s factor: the ability to excel in certain areas; specific intelligence

28. Theories of Intelligence LO 7.4 The Definition of Intelligence • Gardner’s Theory • multiple intelligences: verbal/linguistic, musical, logical/mathematical, visual/spatial, movement, interpersonal, intrapersonal, naturalist, and existential intelligence

30. Gardner’s Theory LO 7.4 The Definition of Intelligence • According to Gardner, what kind of intelligence is being shown here? Movement

31. Gardner’s Theory LO 7.4 The Definition of Intelligence • According to Gardner, what kind of intelligence is being shown here? Albert Einstein Logical/Mathematical

32. Gardner’s Theory LO 7.4 The Definition of Intelligence • According to Gardner, what kind of intelligence is being shown here? Visual/Spatial

33. Gardner’s Theory LO 7.4 The Definition of Intelligence • According to Gardner, what kind of intelligence is being shown here? Musical

34. Theories of Intelligence LO 7.4 The Definition of Intelligence • Triarchic theory of intelligence: Sternberg’s theory that there are three kinds of intelligences: analytical, creative, and practical • analytical intelligence: the ability to break problems down into component parts, or analysis, for problem solving • creative intelligence: the ability to deal with new and different concepts and to come up with new ways of solving problems

35. Theories of Intelligence LO 7.4 The Definition of Intelligence • Triarchic Theory of Intelligence (cont’d) • practical intelligence: the ability to use information to get along in life and become successful

36. Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

37. IQ Tests LO 7.5 Measuring Intelligence and How Intelligence Tests Are Constructed • Intelligence quotient (IQ): a number representing a measure of intelligence, resulting from the division of one’s mental age by one’s chronological age and then multiplying that quotient by 100 • The Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales yield an IQ score.

39. Table 7.5 (continued) Simulated Sample Items From the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS-IV)

40. IQ Tests LO 7.5 Measuring Intelligence and How Intelligence Tests Are Constructed • Wechsler Intelligence Tests yield a verbal score and a performance score, as well as an overall score of intelligence.

42. Development of IQ Tests LO 7.5 Measuring Intelligence and How Intelligence Tests Are Constructed • Standardization: the process of giving the test to a large group of people that represents the kind of people for whom the test is designed • Validity: the degree to which a test actually measures what it’s supposed to measure

43. Development of IQ Tests LO 7.5 Measuring Intelligence and How Intelligence Tests Are Constructed • Reliability: the tendency of a test to produce the same scores again and again each time it is given to the same people

44. Development of IQ Tests LO 7.5 Measuring Intelligence and How Intelligence Tests Are Constructed • Deviation IQ scores: a type of intelligence measure that assumes that IQ is normally distributed around a mean of 100 with a standard deviation of about 15 • norms

45. Figure 7.4 The Normal CurveThe percentages under each section of the normal curve represent the percentage of scores falling within that section for each standard deviation (SD) from the mean. Scores on intelligence tests are typically represented by the normal curve. The dotted vertical lines each represent one standard deviation from the mean, which is always set at 100. For example, an IQ of 115 on the Wechsler represents one standard deviation above the mean, and the area under the curve indicates that 34.13 percent of the population falls between 100 and 115 on this test. Note: The figure shows the mean and standard deviation for the Stanford-Binet Fourth Edition (Stanford-Binet 4). The Stanford-Binet Fifth Edition was published in 2003 and now has a mean of 100 and a standard deviation of 15 for composite scores.

46. Intellectual Disability LO 7.6 Intellectual Disability and Its Causes • Developmentally delayed: condition in which a person’s behavioral and cognitive skills exist at an earlier developmental stage than the skills of others who are the same chronological age; a more acceptable term for intellectual disability • Intellectual disability or developmental delay is a condition in which IQ falls below 70 and adaptive behavior is severely deficient for a person of a particular chronological age.

47. Intellectual Disability LO Intellectual Disability and Its Causes • The four levels of delay are: • mild: 55–70 IQ • moderate: 40–55 IQ • severe: 25–40 IQ • profound: Below 25 IQ. • Causes of developmental delay include deprived environments, as well as chromosome and genetic disorders and dietary deficiencies.

49. Giftedness LO 7.7 Giftedness and Does Giftedness Guarantee Success • Gifted: the 2 percent of the population falling on the upper end of the normal curve and typically possessing an IQ of 130 or above • Does giftedness guarantee success?

50. Giftedness LO 7.7 Giftedness and Does Giftedness Guarantee Success • Terman conducted a longitudinal study that demonstrated that gifted children grow up to be successful adults, for the most part. • Terman’s study has been criticized for a lack of objectivity, because he became too involved in the lives of his participants, even to the point of interfering on their behalf.