LearnIg TheorIes bandura: Socıal CognItıve Theory

1. LearnIg TheorIesbandura: Socıal CognItıve Theory Assist. Prof. MerveTopcu PSY335 Department of Psychology, Çankaya University 2016-2017, Fall

2. socıal cognıtıve theory • Takes chance encounters and fortuitous events seriously • How we react to an expected meeting or event is usuallymore powerful than the event itself • Plasticity, humans have the flexibility to learna variety of behaviors in diverse situations • Vicarious learning, learning by observing others • Reinforcement can be vicarious • triadic reciprocal causation model • behavioral,environment, and personal factors, people have the capacity to regulate their lives • Two important environmental forces in the triadic model are chance encounters andfortuitous events.

3. socıal cognıtıve theory • Agentic perspective, meaning that humanshave the capacity to exercise control over the nature and quality of their lives • Proxy agency, people are able to rely on othersfor goods and services • Collective efficacy, people's shared beliefsthat they can bring about change • External factors, people's physical and social environments • Internal factors, self-observation, judgmental and self-reaction • In morally ambiguous situations, moral agency, redefiningthe behavior, disregarding or distorting the consequences of their behavior,dehumanizing or blaming the victims of their behavior, and displacing or diffusing responsibility for their actions.

4. Learnıng • Humans are quite flexible and capable of learning a multitude of attitudes,skills, and behaviors • Learnings are a result of vicarious experiences • Observational Learning • learn without performing any behavior • learn through observing the behavior of other people • reinforcement is not essential to learning, but facilitates behavior • Modeling • Learning through modeling involves adding and subtracting from the observed behavior and generalizing from one observation to another • symbolically representing information • storing it for use at a future time

5. Processes GovernIng ObservatIonal LearnIng • Four processes that govern observational learning • Attention • Before we can model another person, we must attend to that person. • individuals with whom we frequently associate • attractive models • the nature of the behavior being modeled • Representation • In order for observation to lead to new response patterns, thosepatterns must be symbolically represented in memory • observations are retained in imagery and can be summonedin the absence of the physical model • Verbal codinggreatly speeds the process of observational learning • Verbal coding helps to rehearse the behavior symbolically

6. Processes GovernIng ObservatIonal LearnIng • Four processes that govern observational learning (cont’d) • Behavioral Production • After attending to a model and retaining what we have observed,we then produce the behavior. • Monitor behavior • Performance evaluation • Motivation • Observational learning is most effective when learners are motivatedto perform the modeled behavior • Others may teach us howto do something,we may have no desire to perform the necessary action

7. Enactıve Learnıng • Complex human behavior can be learned when people think about and evaluate the consequences of their behaviors • Response consequences inform us of the effects of our actions. • guide for future actions • The consequences of our responses motivate our anticipatory behavior • capable of symbolically representing future outcomes and acting accordingly • The consequences of responses serve to reinforce behavior • But, learning occurs much more efficiently when thelearner is cognitively involved in the learning situation • Bandura believes that new behaviors are acquired through twomajor kinds of learning: observational learning and enactive learning. • The learning process allows people to have some degree of control over the events that shape the course of their lives. • Control via a three-way reciprocal interactionof person variables, behavior, and environment.

8. Trıadıc Recıprocal Causatıon • Psychological functioning in terms of triadic reciprocal causation. • Human action is a result of an interactionamong three variables-environment, behavior, and person • People possess and use these cognitivecapacities, they have some capacity to select or to restructure their environment • Criticized those theorists who attribute the cause of human behaviorto internal forces such as instincts, drives, needs, or intentions. • The three reciprocal factors do not need tobe of equal strength or to make equal contributions

9. Trıadıc Recıprocal Causatıon

10. Chance Encounters and Fortuitous Events • Cannot predict or anticipate all possible environmental changes • Achance encounter as ‘an unintended meeting ofpersons unfamiliar to each other’ • A fortuitous event is an environmental experiencethat is unexpected and unintended. • Accurate predictions practically impossible • Chance encounters influence people only by entering the triadic reciprocal causation paradigmat point E (environment) and adding to the mutual interaction of person, behavior, and environment.

11. Human Agency • Agentic view of personality, meaning that humanshave the capacity to exercise control over their own lives • Human agency is the essence of humanness. • People are self-regulating, proactive, self-reflective, and self-organizing • An active process of exploring, manipulating, and influencing theenvironment in order to attain desired outcomes.

12. Human Agency • Four core features of human agency • Intentionality • Forethought • Self-reactiveness • Self-reflectiveness

13. Human Agency • Intentionality • Includes planning & action itself • continually change their plans as they become aware of the consequences of their actions • Forethought • set goals, anticipate likely outcomes oftheir actions, and selectbehaviors that will produce desired outcomes and avoid undesirable ones

14. Human Agency • Self-reactiveness • monitor their progress toward fulfilling those choices • Goals must be specific, be within a person's ability toachieve, and reflect potential accomplishments that are not too far in the future • Self-reflectiveness • Examining, thinking, evaluating the functioning • most crucial self-reflective mechanism is self-efficacy • beliefs that they are capable of performing actions that will produce a desired effect

15. Self-EffIcacy People's beliefs in their personal efficacyinfluence what courses of action they choose to pursue, how much effort theywill invest in activities, how long they will persevere in the face of obstacles and failure experiences, and their resiliency following setbacks People'sbeliefs in their capability to exercisesome measure of control over their own functioning and over environmental events • Self-efficacy combines with environment, prior behavior, and otherpersonal variables, especially outcome expectations, to produce behavior. • Self-efficacy refers to the P (person) factor • the foundation of human agency

16. Self-EffIcacy • Distinguished between efficacy expectations and outcomeexpectations • Efficacy refers to people's confidence that they have the ability to perform certain behaviors • An outcome expectancy refers to one's prediction of the likely consequencesof that behavior • Efficacy does not refer to the ability toexecute basic motor skills such as walking, reaching, or grasping. • Efficacy doesnot imply that we can perform designated behaviors without anxiety, stress, or fear;it is merely our judgment, accurate or faulty, about whether or not we can executethe required actions. • Judgements of efficacy are not the same as levels of aspiration

17. Self-EffIcacy • Self-efficacy is not a global or generalized concept, such as self-esteem or self-confidence • High and low efficacy combine with responsive and unresponsive environmentsto produce four possible predictive variables • When efficacy is high and the environment is responsive, outcomes are most likely to be successful. • When low efficacy is combined with a responsive environment, people may becomedepressed • When they observe that others are successful at tasks that seem toodifficult for them. • When people with high efficacy encounter unresponsive environmentalsituations, they usually intensify their efforts to change the environment

18. Self-EffIcacy • What Contributes to Self-Eficacy? • Personal efficacy is acquired, enhanced, or decreased through any one or combination of four sources • Information about oneself and the environment is cognitively processed and togetherwith recollections of previous experiences, alters perceived self-efficacy. • Mastery experiences • Social modeling • Social persuasion • Physicaland emotional states

19. Self-EffIcacy • What Contributes to Self-Eficacy? (cont’d) • Mastery experiences • The most influential sources of self-efficacy • Successful performance raises efficacy expectancies; failure tends to lower them. • Successful performance raises self-efficacy in proportion to the difficultyof the task. • Highly skilled tennis players gain little self-efficacy by defeating clearlyinferior opponents, but they gain much by performing well against superior opponents. • Tasks successfully accomplished by oneself are more efficacious thanthose completed with the help of others. • In sports, team accomplishments do not increasepersonal efficacy as much as do individual achievements.

20. Self-EffIcacy • What Contributes to Self-Eficacy? (cont’d) • Mastery experiences (cont’d) • Failure ismost likely to decrease efficacy when we know that we put forth our best effort. • Failureunder conditions of high emotional arousal or distressre not as self-debilitating as failure under maximal conditions. • Failure priorto establishing a sense of mastery is more detrimental to feelings of personal efficacythan later failure. • Occasionalfailure has littleeffect on efficacy, especially for people with a generally high expectancy of success.

21. Self-EffIcacy • What Contributes to Self-Eficacy? (cont’d) • Social modeling • Vicarious experiences provided by other people • Ourself-efficacy is raised when we observethe accomplishments of another person of equal competence • Powerful effects where inefficacy is concerned. • Social persuasion • a person must believe the persuader • Credibility of the source • perceived status and authority of the persuader • the activity must be within one's repertoire of behavior • social persuasion is most effective when combined with successful performance

22. Self-EffIcacy • What Contributes to Self-Eficacy? (cont’d) • Physical & emotional states • Strong emotion ordinarily lowers performance • E.g., intense fear • Moderate arousal may raise efficacy expectancies • Emotional arousal may facilitate the successful completion of simple tasks,but it is likely to interfere with performance of complex activities.

23. Proxy Agency • Proxy involves indirect control over those social conditions that affect everyday living • Relying on other people • By relying too much on the competence andpower of others, people may weaken their sense of personal and collective efficacy • Become dependent on the other

24. Collectıve Effıcacy • People's shared beliefs in their collective power to produce desired results • Two techniques for measuring collective efficacy. • combine the individual member's evaluation of their personal capabilities to enactbehaviors that benefit the group. • For example, actors in a play would have high collectiveefficacy if all had confidence in their personal ability to adequately performtheir roles. • measure the confidenceeach person has in the group's ability to bring about a desired outcome. • For example,baseball players may have little confidence in each of their teammates but possesshigh confidence that their team will perform quite well.

25. Collectıve Effıcacy • Collective efficacy does not spring from a collective "mind but rather fromthe personal efficacy of many individuals working together. • Depends on • the knowledge and skills of its individual members • their beliefs that they can work together in a coordinated and interactive fashion • Factors that can undermine collective efficacy • humans live in a transnational world; what happens in one part ofthe globe can affect people in other countries • recent technology that people neither understand nor believe that theycan control may lower their sense of collective efficacy • the complex social machinery, with layers of bureaucracy that prevent social change • the tremendous scope and magnitude of human problems can undermine collective efficacy

26. Self-RegulatIon • When people have high levels of self-efficacy, • are confident in their reliance on proxies • possess solid collective efficacy • have considerable capacity to regulate their own behavior • People use both reactive and proactive strategies for self-regulation • Reactivestrategies to reducethe discrepancies between their accomplishments and their goal • Proactivestrategies to set newer and higher goals • What processes contribute to this self-regulation? • the external factors • The internal factors

27. External Factors In Self-RegulatIon • provide us with a standard for evaluating ofown behavior • E.g., we learn from parents and teachers thevalue of honest and friendly behavior • influence self-regulation by providing the means for reinforcement • E.g., a monetary retainer, a praise, encouragement from others • When performance does not meetself-standards, we tend towithhold rewards from ourselves.

28. Internal Factors In Self-RegulatIon • 3 internal requirements in the ongoing exercise of self-influence: • Self-observation • Judgmental processes • Self-reaction

29. Internal Factors In Self-RegulatIon • Self-observation • self-observation of performance • monitor our own performance • What we observe depends on interests andother preexisting self-conceptions • In achievement situations, pay attention to the quality, quantity,speed, or originality of ow work. • In interpersonal situations, such as meetingnew acquaintances or reporting on events, monitor the sociability or morality of our conduct

30. Internal Factors In Self-RegulatIon • Judgemental processes • self-observation alone does not provide a sufficient basis for regulating behavior • we must also evaluate our performance • depends on personal standards, referential performances, valuation of activity, and performance attribution • personal standards allow us to evaluate ow performances without comparingthem to the conduct of others • evaluate our performances by comparing them to a standard of reference • overall value we place on an activity • how we judge the causes of our behavior

31. Internal Factors In Self-RegulatIon • Self-reaction • Respond positively or negatively to their behaviors depending on how these behaviors measure up to their personal standards • Self-reinforcement or self-punishment • Use cognitive ability to mediate the consequences of behavior • Self-dissatisfaction or self-criticism

32. Internal Factors In Self-RegulatIon • Moral Agency • Doing no harm to people • Proactively helping people • Selective activation • Moral precepts predict moral behavior only when those precepts are converted to action. • Self-regulatoryinfluences are not automatic but operate only if they are activated • Disengagement of internal control • By justifying the morality of their actions, they can separate or disengage themselves from the consequences of their behavior • allow people, individually or working in concertwith others, to engage in inhumane behaviors while retaining their moral standards

33. minimize, ignore, or distort thedetrimental consequences of their behavior Internal Factors In Self-RegulatIon Selective activation and disengagement of internal control allow people withthe same moral standards to behave quite differently redefine or reconstruct the nature of the behavior itself blame or dehumanize the victim.

34. Internal Factors In Self-RegulatIon • Redefine the Behavior • Cognitive restructuring that allows them to minimize or escape responsibility • Moral justification • otherwise culpable behavior is madeto seem defensible or even noble • Palliative comparisons • reducing responsibility through redefining wrongful behavior is to make advantageous • Euphemistic labels

35. Internal Factors In Self-RegulatIon • Disregard or Distort the Consequences of Behavior • minimize the consequences of their behavior • disregard or ignore the consequences of their actions • distort or misconstrue the consequences of their actions • Dehumanize or Blame the Victims

36. Internal Factors In Self-RegulatIon • Displace or Diffuse Responsibility • displacement, people minimize the consequences of their actions by placing responsibility on an outside source. • diffuse responsibility, spread it so thin that no one person is responsible • "That's the way things are done around here«

37. DysfunctIonal Behavıor • Triadic reciprocal causation model accounts for dysfunctional behavior • Depression • High personal standards and goals • Undervalue own accomplishments • dysfunctional depression can occur in any of the three self-regulatory subfunctions: • Self-observation • Exaggerate thepast mistakes • Minimize their prior accomplishments • Judgmental processes • Likely to make faulty judgments • Unrealistically high standarts • Self-reactions • judge themselves harshly • treat themselves badly for their shortcomings

38. DysfunctIonal Behavıor • Phobias • Learning principles for development & maintainance of basic phobias • television and other news media for generating many of fears • terrorize a community, causing people to live more confined lives behind locked doors

39. DysfunctIonal Behavıor • Aggression • aggressive behavior is acquired through observation of others,direct experiences with positive and negative reinforcements, training, or instruction, and bizarre beliefs. • Bobodoll experiment • Children see, children do

40. Therapy • Deviant behaviors are initiated & maintained on the basis of social cognitivelearning principles • Therapeutic changeis difficult because it involveseliminating behaviors that are satisfying to the person • The ultimate goal of social cognitive therapy is self-regulation • instigate some change in behavior • generalize specific changes • maintenance of newly acquired functional behaviors w/out relapse • overt or vicarious modeling • covert or cognitive modeling • enactive mastery • cognitive mediation