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THE FRENCH REVOLUTION (1789-1815) AND NAPOLEON

This resource provides various sources and learning objectives related to the French Revolution and Napoleon, including the transition to unlimited war, the uniqueness of the Revolution Army, Napoleon's rise and failure, and the impact of new technology on warfare.

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THE FRENCH REVOLUTION (1789-1815) AND NAPOLEON

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  1. THE FRENCH REVOLUTION (1789-1815) AND NAPOLEON

  2. SOURCES • Dupuy, The Evolution of Weapons and Warfare, pp. 154-168 • Dupuy and Dupuy, The Encylopedia of Military History; pp. 730-769 • Fuller, A Military History of the Western World, Vol. II, Chronicles 12, 13, 14, 15; ch. 12-15; pp.370-542 • Montross, War Through the Ages, pp. 459-554 • Paret, Makers of Modern Strategy, pp123-142 (1986 Sequel) • Jones, The Art of War in the Western World, pp.320-358 • Preston and Wise, Men in Arms, pp. 179-187 • Mathews, French Revolution, pp. 2-15 • Roberts, The French Revolution, pp. 21-40

  3. LEARNING OBJECTIVES • Know and trace the transition from limited war to unlimited war during the French Revolution • Comprehend the uniqueness of the Revolution Army, the role of ideology in the levee en masse, & the problems of controlling such an army • Comprehend and relate the rise of Napoleon to the failure of the French Revolution • Know and discuss the impact of new technology on warfare in the Napoleonic period

  4. LEARNING OBJECTIVES • Know and contrast Napolean’s victory at Austerlitz and his defeat at Waterloo • Comprehend and explain how the stalemate at sea and on land in 1805 dictated a strategy of economic warfare • Comprehend and explain how Napoleon’s Russian campaign underscored his weakness as a “grand strategist” • Know and list Napoleon’s major contributions to military thought

  5. PERIODS OF THE REVOLUTION • Five sub-periods distinguished by form of government • Estates • Legislative Assembly • National Convention • Directory • Consulate • First Empire

  6. ESTATES • General and Constituent Assembly • 5 May 1789 - 30 Sep 1791 • Government a limited, constitutional monarchy • Dominance of upper middle class

  7. LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLY • 1 Oct 1791 - 21 Sep 1792 • Monarchy continued as before until suspended • Rising power of the lower class

  8. NATIONAL CONVENTION • 21 Sep 1792 - 25 Oct 1795 • Height of revolution • Convention called to frame new constitution • Abolished monarchy • Supported reign of terror, then overthrew it • Led resistance to foreign foes • War with Austria & Prussia politically endued toward democracy

  9. DIRECTORY • 26 Oct 1795 - 9 Nov 1799 • Middle classes recovered influence • Party divisions • General Bonaparte’s coup d-etat • Formed republic with Napoleon as Emperor

  10. CONSULATE • At first provisional, then definitive • 25 Dec 1799 - 20 May 1804 • Civil and military role, virtually of one man • Progress of French arms • Form still nominally republican

  11. FIRST EMPIRE • 20 May 1804 - 22 Jun 1815 • Napoleon made France the controlling power on the continent, but was finally overthrown

  12. BACKGROUND • Spirit of 18th Century • devoted to destruction and reformation of existing institutions • most notable manifestations: the attacks of French writers upon church and state • Agrarian conditions - peasantry mostly free but highly taxed; not downtrodden, but well-off enough to wish to better themselves

  13. BACKGROUND • Rise of the middle class • generally excluded from politics; growing richer; read and listened to philosophies • Unwieldy and inefficient machinery of government • irresponsible and unsuited to needs of state • taxation was inequitable • no representative assembly • Letters de Cachet - imprisoning without habeas corpus: served as anti-government propaganda

  14. BACKGROUND • Ever-growing deficit • proved impossible of reduction • May 1789: Louis XVI convened meeting of Estates General (represented 3 estates of French society - Nobles, Clergy and Commons) • Commons assumed title of National Assembly and undertook to reform government by formulating a constitution for a constitutional monarchy

  15. NATIONAL ASSEMBLY • 5 May 1789 • Meeting of Estates General • National Assembly formed by Commons • Members of Nobles and Clergy invited to join • Many joined the assembly

  16. NATIONAL ASSEMBLY • 23 Jun 1789 • Fruitless royal sitting • King ordered assembly to meet in 3 houses • Mirabeau (Provencial nobleman) elected principal orator of assembly by 3rd estate • King requested nobles & clergy join 3rd estate

  17. NATIONAL ASSEMBLY • 14 Jul 1789 • Concentration of troops near Paris • Rumors of kings intention to dissolve National Assembly • Dismissal of Necker • Storming and destruction of the Bastille

  18. NATIONAL ASSEMBLY • Necker recalled • Lafayette commander of newly established National Guard • Rising of peasants against feudal lords • Beginning of emigration of nobles

  19. NATIONAL ASSEMBLY • 4 Aug 1789 • Voluntary surrender by representatives of nobles of all feudal rights and privileges to occur over period of years • 27 Aug 1789 • Declaration of rights of man, a bill of rights compounded from English and American precedents and from political theories current with the philosophies

  20. NATIONAL ASSEMBLY • 5-6 Oct 1789 - Outbreak of the mob of Paris • Liberal monarchical constitution: king could not declare war and conclude peace without consent of chamber • Ecclesiastic estates declared public property and notes issued under security of public lands

  21. NATIONAL ASSEMBLY • 14 Jul 1790 • National federation in Paris • Constitution accepted by king • Abolished hereditary nobility, titles, and coats of arms

  22. NATIONAL ASSEMBLY • Power of clubs grow • Jacobins under Robespierre • Cordeliers under Danton, Marat, Desmoulins, Hebert • Feuillants - moderate monarchists separated from Jacobins - Lafayette and Bailly

  23. NATIONAL ASSEMBLY • Sep 1790 • Fall of Necker • alliance between Mirabeau and court, who endeavored to stem revolution and prevent overthrow of throne • 2 Apr 1791 - Death of Mirabeau • 20 - 25 Jun 1791 - Flight of the king

  24. NATIONAL ASSEMBLY • 14 Sep 1791 • King accepts constitution • Annexation of Avignon and Benaissin to France • 30 Sep 1791 • Dissolution of Assembly

  25. LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLY • 1 Oct 1791 • Legislative Assembly, 745 members elected by active citizens • still represented primarily middle class • 7 Feb 1792 • Alliance of Austria and Prussia against France

  26. NATIONAL CONVENTION • War of First Coalition against France • 20 Apr 1792 - France declares war on Austria - increases revolutionary excitement in Paris • 10 Aug 1792 - Storming of Tuileries by mob - king suspended from functions and confined • 20 Aug 1792 - Lafayette, impeached and proscribed, fled from army - Verdun taken by Prussians • 2-7 Sep 1792 - September massacres at Paris • 20 Sep 1792 - Battle of Valmy - French, under Dumouriey and Kellermann, defeated Prussians

  27. NATIONAL CONVENTION • 21 Sep 1792 • National Convention convened • Abolition of Monarchy - France declared a Republic • Dec 1792 - Trial of Louis XVI • 21 Jan 1793 - Execution of Louis XVI • 1 Feb 1793 - War declared against Great Britain, Holland, Spain

  28. NATIONAL CONVENTION • Reign of Terror - Robespierre gradually came to dominate the whole government • 23 Aug 1793-Levy of males; 14 armies raised • 16 Oct 1793 - Execution of Marie Antoinette • Nov 1793 - New army under Jourdan, Hoche & Pichegru • Dec 1793 - Retreat of Allies across the Rhine. French captured Worms and Speier, and took Toulon from British (first appearance of Napoleon Bonaparte as young artillery officer)

  29. NATIONAL CONVENTION • Mar 1794 - Robespierre succeeded in crushing rival powers • 27 Jul 1794 - Fall of Robespierre • 5 Mar 1795 - Treaty of Bassel between France and Prussia

  30. NATIONAL CONVENTION • 22 Aug 1795 - Constitution of 1797 - 3rd of revolution • Executing power: Directory of five, Council of Elders, and Council of 500 • First Term: 2/3 of each council taken from Nat. Conv. • General Bonaparte placed in charge of troops

  31. NATIONAL CONVENTION • 5 Oct 1795 • Paris royalists instigated outbreak of sections in opposition of 2/3 self protection measure of convention for 1st term council • Napoleon’s “whiff of grapeshot” led to complete victory for convention • 26 Oct 1795 • Convention dissolved • 1797 - Moderate legislative elected • End of war - coup d’etat

  32. IMPACT OF REVOLUTION • Larger armies led to unlimited warfare • Emergence of democratic ideal; emphasis on individual freedom, equality & popular government • John Locke • Jean Jacques Rousseau - citizen had responsibility to fight in defense of country (not a logical thought for 18th century monarchies) • American Revolution and apologists • Conscription is unthinkable without this ideology (governed were now governing, had affirmative obligation to defend government)

  33. IMPACT OF REVOLUTION • Ability to man, control, arm, feed large armies • Larger populations • Improved communications systems • Beginnings of mass production • Improved agricultural methods • Line formation of battle vs. the column • Line provided more firepower (muskets) • Column could break the line

  34. IMPACT OF REVOLUTION • Military theories of Comptee Jacques de Guibert • Ordre mixte; combo of column (approach and maneuver) and line (fighting) • Breaking army into smaller units or divisions • advance along several routes • mass forces at precise time and place • Dispersion then concentration at critical time and place

  35. IMPACT OF REVOLUTION • 13 Jul 1789 • Crowd seizes 28,000 muskets and some cannon from military storage depot • 14 Jul 1789 • Bastille stormed and governor lynched • Jul 1792 • Paris mob storms palace, massacres Swiss guard • Lafayette tries to get men to save king, they refuse and Lafayette goes over to Austrians • Louis XVI executed in 1793

  36. IMPACT OF REVOLUTION • Lazare Carnot succeeded in gaining control of Revolutionary Army • Aug 1793 in charge of military affairs for committee of Public Safety • Emphasis on offensive in mass • Organized National Army • Foraging enhanced mobility • By 1794 French Army enjoyed both Mass and Mobility, Napoleon and 8 of his future marshals made general @ average age of 33

  37. IMPACT OF REVOLUTION • Armies created by revolution eventually made Bonaparte Emperor of France (back to autocracy) • Moderate legislature elected in 1797 desired end of war • 3 radical directors conspired with Bonaparte to arrange coup d’etat • In ensuing coup, Carnot escaped to Switzerland

  38. IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGY • Gribeauval’s artillery reforms • interchangeable parts • improved cartridges (ball and charge packed together) • Tangent sight • Ammunition wagons • By time of revolution, constant drill had made French clearly superior

  39. IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGY • Mobility and communication enhanced by improved roads and maps and signal telegraph • Napoleon, resistant to new weapons and technology, failed to make use of balloons and shrapnel

  40. NAPOLEON • First gained renown at age 24 • Command of artillery in 1794 siege of Toulon • Awarded temporary rank of Brigadier General (from Captain) • Oct 1795 - saved government of Directory by using guns against Paris mob (“whiff of grapeshot”) • Promoted by Directory - promised command of Army of Italy in 1796 • Read incessantly - Guibert, Voltaire, Rousseau, Frederick the Great

  41. FRENCH COLUMN VS. LINE

  42. ITALIAN CAMPAIGN • Directors feared his ambition - in Mar 1796 given command of Army of Italy • 45,000, ill fed, poorly equipped, four dispersed divisions and two smaller detachments • British blockaded coast, 2 smaller allied armies were widely separated beyond hills to north • Improved logistical organization & motivated men with promises of booty and glory

  43. ITALIAN CAMPAIGN • Commenced campaign • Burst from position along coast & separated two allied armies • fist surrendered, second fell back to Lombardy • Remained on strategic defensive • Blockaded Austrian force at Mantua, and defeated several Austrian armies approaching Mantua to give relief (used interior lines) • After seizing Mantua, moved into Austria quickly bringing them to terms • Won 12 victories in 12 months using rapid marches, flexibility in maneuver, & concentration of force

  44. NAPOLEON IN ITALY

  45. EGYPTION CAMPAIGN • Couldn’t defeat England at sea • Directory agreed to seize Egypt as base for further operations against England’s oriental empire • May 1798 - Sailed from Toulon w/35,000 veterans from Italian campaign • Captured Malta and arrived @ Alexandria on 1 July

  46. DURING MARCH ON CAIRO • Encountered 60,000 Mamelukes (superb cavalry force) in battle of pyramids • Napoleon’s efficient volleys of infantry and guns in checkerboard formation prevailed • Loaded muskets in inner ranks & passed up to soldiers in front, producing devastating fire

  47. EGYPTION CAMPAIGN • Fought in Egypt and Syria another 12 months • Realized further glory unlikely without reinforcements from France • Had received info that Directory was failing • Aug 1799 - relinquished command & returned to France • Strategically, Egyptian expedition made no sense • Victory offset by Nelson’s victory @ Aboukir Bay; Weak French Navy doomed campaign (SLOC)

  48. ULM and AUSTERLITZ • Napoleon turned Eastward • Third Coalition (Britain, Austria, Russia) formed against him, but forces still scattered • Main axis: Danube Valley running through Austria towards Prussia • Napoleon needed to strike first to prevent massing of 140,000 men at Ulm • Decided to strike Austrians at Ulm first, then move down Danube to deal with Russians

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