Information Processing

1. Information Processing Chapter 8

2. Information Processing Approach • Goal = examine how children/adults operate on/process information • Have limited capacities • No single theory • General approach • Reasoning  processing abilities • More efficient processing = better reasoning • Focus on domain specific skills rather than general skills that apply across domains

3. Models of Information Processing • Atkinson & Shiffrin’s multistore model • Three parts of system • Sensory register • Short term memory (STM) (book = short term store) • Long term memory (LTM) (book = long term store) • Inborn and universal • Analogy = computer • Stores = hardware • Control processes/mental strategies = software

4. Atkinson & Shiffrin’s Model • Sensory Register • Sights/sounds represented directly • Limited capacity • Short-Term Memory (STM) • Conscious part • Limited capacity • 7 +/- 2 units of information • Limited time

5. Atkinson & Shiffrin’s Model • Long-Term Memory (LTM) • Unlimited capacity • Unlimited time frame • Organization and memory strategies

6. Figure 8.1 A schematic model of the human information processing system. ADAPTED FROM ATKINSON & SHIFFRIN, 1968.

7. Levels-of-Processing Model • No “containers” with fixed limits • Retention  depth

8. Levels-of-Processing Model Queen Play Chair Hot Bread Butter Love Lamp West Thin King Bottle Boy Table Lake Candy Cold Girl Hat Photograph East North Pencil Belt

9. Levels-of-Processing Model • Shallow  decays • Deeper  retained • Problems due to distribution of attention

10. Levels-of-Processing Model • STM/STS replaced by working memory • The conscious pool of attentional resources from which our information-processing activities draw (Baddeley, 1992) • Attention depends on learned/automatic processes • Operating efficiency hypothesis – Case

11. Comparisons • Hardware and software change • Levels-of-processing  software • Control processes improve with age • Controversy regarding hardware…

12. Control Processes (Software/Strategies) • Strategy = deliberately implemented, goal-directed operations used to improve task performance • Increase likelihood information in STM  to LTM • In general, younger children = fewer strategies; less effective

13. Control Processes (Software/Strategies) • Production deficiency • Utilization deficiency

14. Control Processes (Software/Strategies) • Children of all ages have a variety of strategies that they choose from when solving problems • not stagelike • Rehearsal • Rarely < 6-7 years

15. Control Processes (Software/Strategies) • Organization • Elaboration • Develops late, compared to other strategies

16. Retrieval of Information • Recognition • Recall • Free recall vs. cued recall • Reconstruction

17. Fuzzy-Trace Theory • Continuum of memory representations • Verbatim = literal • Fuzzy (gist) = content, but not detail

18. Capacity vs. Knowledge • Why is the memory of older children/adults better than that of younger children? • Capacity • Knowledge

19. Capacity vs. Knowledge • Differences in children’s and adults’ memory  knowledge • Chi: children and adults tested on memory for chess pieces • Chess position presented for 10 seconds • Immediate recall – place pieces on blank board • Repeated recall – keep going until perfect • 4 lists of 10 digits were also presented • Children chess experts, adults novices

20. Capacity vs. Knowledge • Chi: Results • Interaction between age and material • Children outperform adults when they’re more knowledgeable

21. Capacity vs. Knowledge • Children in Chi’s study were 9 years old, what about younger children? • Problem: children’s knowledge may improve performance, but to measure STM capacity, need a test not influenced by differences in knowledge

22. Attentional Processing • Control • Focused and sustained • Infants and preschoolers were seated at a table with age-appropriate toys • Concentrated involvement

23. Attentional Processing • Patterns of Attention • Young infants habituation • Preschoolers • 5-6 year olds • Adaptability

24. Attentional Processing • Patricia Miller: strategy development follows a predictable sequence • Production deficiency • Control deficiency • Utilization deficiency

25. Planfulness • Thinking out a sequence of acts ahead of time and allocating attention accordingly to reach a goal • Infancy • Preschool

26. Memory • Infantile amnesia • Nonverbal form • Sense of self

27. Development of Scripted Memory • Scripts – schemes for recurring events organized in terms of causal and temporal sequences • Organizes world • Tend to remember info consistent with scripts • Become more elaborate with age

28. Eyewitness Memory Attorney: “How did you get hurt at naptime?” Child: “I don’t know.” Attorney: “Did Sandy hurt you?” Child: nodded yes

29. Eyewitness Memory • Older children > younger children • Preschooler  accurate, fewer precise details • False memories are as resistant to forgetting as true memories are

30. Eyewitness Memory • Leading questions suggest answers • Even adults are susceptible • Loftus – film of car crash • Age-related changes in susceptibility to misleading questions

31. Eyewitness Memory • Ages 3-12 told story with pictures • Some information presented both verbally and in pictures, some information in pictures only • Story about a girl on the first day of school who ate her breakfast too quickly and got a stomachache • Stomachache verbally and in pictures, eggs in picture only

32. Eyewitness Memory • Results (% correct) 3-4 5-6 7-9 10-12 Control: 84 87 95 95 Biased: 37 58 67 84

33. Eyewitness Memory • Perhaps no memory distortion • Children are intimidated by authority? • 4 and 5 year olds given same task, but 7 year olds did interview second day

34. Eyewitness Memory • Results biased: 53% correct unbiased: 72% correct Selected children from experiment 1 who fell in 4-5 year old range biased: 34% correct unbiased: 74% correct

35. Eyewitness Memory • Misleading suggestions  memory errors • Children, especially young children, may be most susceptible, but it’s not clear why • Children younger than 9/10 are far more susceptible than older children, adolescents, and adults

36. Memory for Actual Events • 4 and 7 year olds went to a trailer where an adult interacted with them and played games • Simon says • Clown • 10-12 days later returned for a memory test • Specific questions • Misleading questions

37. Memory for Actual Events • Results Specific questions: 4-year-olds 79% correct 7-year-olds 91% correct Misleading questions: 4-year-olds 86% correct 7-year-olds 95% correct

38. Memory for Actual Events • Memory of a medical examination • Memory: • Free recall • Anatomically detailed doll • Direct and misleading questions

39. Memory for Actual Events • Results • Genital condition • Nongenital condition • 3 out of 36 falsely reported in response to misleading questions • False reports rare, but did occur

40. Memory for Actual Events • Children may underreport abuse • Be careful of leading questions