The Western Heritage, Since 1300

1. The Western Heritage, Since 1300 Chapter 16: The Birth of Modern European Thought Pg#580-613

2. Learning Objectives • What effect did state-financed education have on literacy in late nineteenth-century Europe? • What role did science play in the second half of the nineteenth-century? • What challenges did European Christianity face in the late nineteenth-century? • How did developments in art, psychology, and science reflect a profound shift in western thought? • How did women challenge gender stereotypes in the late nineteenth-century and early twentieth-centuries? 1. What effect did state-financed education have on literacy in late nineteenth-Century Europe?

3. Chapter Outline: I. The new reading public II. Science at mid-century III. Christianity and the Church under siege IV. Toward a 20th century frame of mind V. Women and modern thought VI. In perspective

4. Vocabulary: • cubism(599) • ego(601) • id(601) • Kulturkampf(589) • modernism(595) • natural selection(584) • papal infallibility(590) • positivism(582) • post-impressionism(598) • racism(603) • realist(594) • social Darwinism(585) • superego(601) • zionist(606) • id, ego

5. Chapter 16 Review Questions 1. Why was science dominant in the second half of the nineteenth century? How did the scientific outlook change between 1850 and 1914? What was positivism? How did Darwin and Wallace’s theory of natural selection affect ethics, Christianity, and European views of human nature? 2. Why was Christianity attacked in the late nineteenth century? Why was Leo XIII regarded as a liberal pope? Why was the papacy itself so resilient? 3. Why did Europeans feel superior toward Islam? How did Islamic thinkers respond to the European challenge? 4. How did social conditions of literature change in the late nineteenth century? What was the significance of the explosion of literary matter? How did the realists undermine middle-class morality? How did literary modernism differ from realism? 5. What were the major movements associated with the rise of modern art?

6. Chapter 16 Review Questions 6. How did Nietzsche and Freud challenge traditional morality? 7. Why were many late-nineteenth-century intellectuals afraid of and hostile to women? How did Freud view the position of women? What social and political issues affected women in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries? What new directions did feminism take? 8. What was the character of late-nineteenth-century racism? How did this character become associated with anti-Semitism? 9. How did many ideas associated with modernism conflict with feminist goals? What were new departures in turn-of-the-century feminism?

7. Darwin’s Theory of Natural Selection I. Charles Darwin (1809-1882) 1. Text- On the Origin of Species a. formulated the process of natural selection b. explained how species changed or evolved over time c. Darwin one of several who advocated theory of natural selection 2. Alfred Russel Wallace (1823- 1913) advocated natural selection as well II. Natural Selection 1. contention that more living organisms that could survive in any given time 2. those organisms with marginal advantage would survive 3. “survival of the strongest” 4. theory of evolution contradicted Biblical narrative of Creation as well as Deistic existence of God Charles Darwin Alfred Russel Wallace

8. Science and Ethics-Social Darwinism I. Philosophic views of Social Darwinism- 1. use of phrase “survival of the fittest” to explain competition within the economic realm 2. Herbert Spencer (1820-1902) a. British philosopher b. believed human society progressed through competition 1. “if the weak received too much protection, the rest of humankind is the loser” c. Spencer’s philosophy could be used to justify against giving to those in need 1. “humankind needs to strive and fight other- wise they can become soft and weak” 3. Thomas Henry Huxley (defender of Darwin) 1. stated, “physical process of evolution was at odds with human ethical development

9. Christianity and the Church Under Siege I. Advances in Science, medicine, and Philosophy difficult belief in religion and the Church II. Intellectual Skepticism 1. intellectual attack on Christianity challenged credibility, scientific accuracy, morality in religion a. beginning with the Age of Enlightenment, critics would point out contradictions within Bible 2. David Friedrich Strauss (1808-1874) 1. author The Life of Jesus-questioned whether Bible provided genuine historical evidence about Jesus 2. contended story of Jesus a myth a. story came about as result of aspirations of people of that time and place rather than actual event

10. Christianity and the Church Under Siege 3. Julius Wellhausen (1844-1918), Germany, Ernst Renan (1823-1892), France, Matthew Arnold (1822-1888) contended that human authors had written and revised books of the Bible with the problems of Jewish society and politics in mind III. Science- 1. William Paley (1743-1805), Natural Theology, Charles Lyell(1797-1875), geological work, both suggested Earth much older than Biblical records contended. Also, continued nature studies proved inaccuracy of Bible a. anthropologists, psychologists, sociologists proposed that religious sentiments were just another set of natural phenomena, like many others IV. Morality- 1. Intellectuals questioned morality of Christianity 1. Violence, cruelty, unpredictability of Old Testament did not sit well with tolerant liberals (think judgement)

11. Christianity and the Church Under Siege 2. Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900), German a. portrayed religion that glorified weakness rather than strength life required(think social Darwinism) b. Nietzsche felt religion demanded useless & debilitating sacrifice of flesh & spirit rather than heroic living and daring 1. “war and courage have accomplished more great things than love of neighbor” V. Negative climate towards religion by the beginning of the 20th century. 1. fewer men joined clergy 2. ordinary people could not relate to Church found out they could live quite well without it

12. Conflict Between Church and State I. Religious Conflict 1. Catholics & Protestants clashed over ideology & interpretation 2. liberals disliked traditional religious dogma & political privileges of established traditional churches 3. questions over validity of religious education (secular & religious education) of European masses II. Great Britain- 1. Education Act of 1870-provided for state-supported schools run by elected officials (previously govt. had given funds to religious schools) a. rivalry between Anglican Church education and other Protestant faiths not part of Anglican Church 2. Education Act of 1902-govt., provided state support for both religious & non-religious schools but imposed same standards on both III. France- 1. France had dual system of Catholic and Public schools 2. Falloux Law of 1850-local priest provided religious education in public schools

13. Conflict Between Church and State III. France- 1. France had dual system of Catholic and Public schools 2. Falloux Law of 1850-local priest provided religious education in public schools 3. Jules Ferry (1832-1893) sponsored laws which replaced religious training with civic training a. number of public schools increased & religious members no longer able to teach religious studies 4. French Radical govt., of Pierre Waldeck-Rousseau (1846-1904), supporter of the Dreyfus groups (Dreyfus affair), suppressed Catholic religious orders a. Napoleonic Concordat terminated, Church & State separated

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15. Conflict Between Church and State IV. Germany- 1. 1870’s and Kulturkampf 2. At the time of unification, German Catholic Church wanted freedom for the Churches in Constitution a. initially, Otto von Bismarck not interested in such affairs but soon felt threatened by Catholic Center political party 3. 1870-1871, Bismarck removed clergy from overseeing local education in Prussia & set it under state standards a. beginning of concerted attack on Catholic Church in Germany 4. “May Laws” of 1873, applied to Prussia, requiring priests to be educated in German schools, universities, and to pass state exams a. state could veto appointments of priests b. state abolished disciplinary power of Pope & Clergy and transferred it to the state c. many of clergy failed to obey laws so were arrested or expelled (including all Catholic Bishops from Prussia) d. kulturkampf failure for Bismarck as ended attacks on German Catholics by end of 1870’s e. Bismarck gained control of education and civil laws pertaining to marriage

16. The Roman Catholic Church and the Modern World I. Pope Pius IX (1846-1878)- 1. counter-offensive against European liberalism 2. 1864 issued Syllabus of Errors a. official policy of Roman Catholic Church against then contemporary science, philosophy, and politics 3. 1869-1st Vatican Council-came up with Church dogma of Papal infallibility when speaking officially on matters of faith and morals a. 1st Vatican Council ended 1870-no previous pope had asserted total centralized power 4. All this occurred during Franco-Prussian war with Italian troops occupying Rome a. Church territory limited to Vatican City(smallest city in world today) b. Church belief that it could survive with other modern nation-states only by centering authority of the Church in the Papacy itself

17. The Roman Catholic Church and the Modern World II. Pope Leo XIII (1878-1903), 68 at the time of his election- 1. focused on philosophy of Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274) to reconcile differences between Church and modern world regarding faith and reason a. 1891-Rerun Novarum, 1. defended private property 2. religious education 3. religious control of marriage 4. condemned socialism & Marxism 5. employers should pay proper wages, permit union organization b. many Catholic political parties founded on principles of Rerun Novarum 2. Pope Pius X (1903-1914)- a. sought to restore traditional devotional life b. 1903-1907, condemned Catholic modernism c. required priests to take anti-modernist oath 3. turmoil within the Church

18. Islam and Late 19th Century European Thought I. Europeans and Islam 1. Islam received same treatment as Christianity & Judaism-historical phenomena a. Islam seen as product of a particular culture b. Renan & Weber dismissed Islam as religion closed to developing science and new ideas 2. Jamal al-din Al-Afghani (1839-1879), Egyptian intellectual a. argued that Islam would produce culture as modern as any in Europe 3. European superiority (belief in…) over peoples of Africa, Asia), lead to idea that Europe created the world’s culture a. Christian missionaries contributed to problem blaming Islam for Arab problems (lack of modern technologies, mis-treatment of women, etc.)

19. Islam and Late 19th Century European Thought II. Islamic Response to European Thought, Science, and Technology 1. Salafiyya movement felt no contradiction between science and Islam 2. Arab world would cease imitating West and develop its own modern society on the basis of a pure, restored Islamic faith 3. emphasized rational reading of Qur’an a. this idea led many Muslims to outright reject Western thought/influence 4. Other Islamic movements simply rejected Western thought- a. Mahdist movement in the Sudan b. Sanussiya movement in Libya c. Wahhabist movement in (Saudi) Arabia (Arabian Peninsula)

20. Toward a 20th Century Frame of Mind I. Science: The Revolution in Physics 1. 1883 Ernst Mach(1838-1916)- a. published The Science of Mechanics- urged scientists consider their concepts descriptive not of the physical world, but of the sensations the scientific observer experiences b. Henri Poincare (1854-1912), French- a. urged theories of scientists be regarded as hypothetical constructs of the human mind c. Hans Vaihinger (1852-1933), German- a. suggested the concepts of science be considered “as if” descriptions of the physical world II. X Rays & Radiation 1. 1895-Wilhelm Roentgen- published theory of X Rays 2. 1896-Henri Becquerel- discovered uranium emitted similar form of energy 3. 1897- J.J. Thomson-formulated theory of the electron 4. 1902-Ernest Rutherford-explained cause of radiation through disintegration of the atoms of radioactive materials

21. The Coming of Modern Art I. Edouard Manet (1832-1883) 1. Impressionism(style of art) a. depiction of modern life itself focusing on the social life and leisured activities of the urban middle and lower middle classes

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24. The Coming of Modern Art I. Claude Monet (1840-1926)

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28. The Coming of Modern Art III. Camille Pissaro (1830-1903)

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33. The Coming of Modern Art IV. Edgar Degas (1834-1917)

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36. The Coming of Modern Art V. Pierre-Auguste Renoir ( 1841-1926)

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