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1. AP U.S. History

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2. Exploration and Colonization Information in this Unit is often used in free response questions that deal with the causes of imperialism, inter-imperialist competition, and the clash of cultures. Many of the causes for imperialism have been reviewed as causes for Manifest Destiny, American Imperialism of the late 19th Century, and in foreign policy dealings with the Cold War. Desire for new markets to relieve under-consumption and overproduction, cheaper sources of raw materials, spread of religious/social/political ideologies, and building military strength. In all of these cases the desire to expand has led the Center (Mother) nation into conflict – either military or economic. (The Seven Years War, the American Revolution, The Mexican War, the Spanish-American War, World War I, The Cold War – Korea, Vietnam, Afghanistan). Whenever the Imperialist acquires new lands it causes a clash of cultures with indigenous peoples (Spanish and Latin Americans – Aztec and Inca, The United States and Native Americans, Europeans and Africans/Asians, etc.)
3. The American Revolution and Constitutional Period Many of the problems and abuses that occurred in the years immediately following the end of the American Revolution can be traced to the weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation in addressing these concerns. Making this connection is important in understanding why the Articles of Confederation were inadequate for the new nation and why early on some questioned the new government’s usefulness. The Constitution is at the heart of American History. You must be able to identify the ways in which the constitution was designed to allow the government to meet changing conditions and attitudes.
4. Forming a New Nation A free response question that relates to the Jeffersonian Movement, presidency, or the “Revolution of 1800” may in part ask you to relate the meaning of these terms in relation to the alternative perspective, the Hamiltonian Movement. Historians have debated the two perspectives for decades, and their observations will help you make a thorough analysis. The contrasts between the Jeffersonian and Hamiltonian movements listed in your notes represent one way of looking at the issue. Historians who see these distinctions go on to contend that the Jeffersonian movement was one that advanced democracy in the United States. Further it was the first example of political liberalism – reforming the political and economic system – in the 19th Century: under Jefferson, the government was viewed as the guardian of the people against the abuses of the upper classes. Conversely, Hamilton is often seen as wanting to further the privileges and objectives of the northern commercial/capitalist interests. Consequently, Hamilton and Jefferson inhabit opposite ends of the political spectrum.
5. Forming a New Nation(Cont.) Other historians do not see the contrast between Jefferson and Hamilton this way. To them, there are basically no substantial differences between Hamilton and Jefferson or between the Federalists and Democratic-Republicans, because both represented the interests of the upper classes, whether northern capitalists or southern planters. What is more, Jefferson was a pragmatist who was not tied to any particular philosophical approach to government but adjusted to what was expedient, as expressed in his first inaugural address: “We are all Republicans, we are all Federalists”. Some would argue that he was attempting to provide a smooth transition from one political party to another. Other historians point to two important examples that show Jefferson was not consistent with the ideals he preached. The First was an abandonment of his strict interpretation of the constitution when he purchased the Louisiana Territory from France. No clause in the Constitution gave him the authority to do so ; he did what was “necessary and proper”, the argument of those holding a loose interpretation. The second example is that despite his opposition to the Bank of the United States, upon becoming president he did not seek to eliminate it but simply allowed its charter to expire. Taking into account these conflicting opinions will make for a more compelling free response.
6. Expansion and Reform Take note that internal political factors sometimes inhibited territorial aggrandizement – for example, the internal debate that ensued over Cuba and the Ostend Manifesto. Major territorial acquisitions: Original 13 States (1783): Treaty of Paris – All land east of the Mississippi River Louisiana Purchase (1803): Purchased from France for $15 Million – 825,000 Square Miles Florida (1819): Adams-Onis Treaty: U.S. pays $5 Million Texas (1845): Initially declared itself independent from Mexico (Lone Star Republic), annexed by the United States and became a slave state. Oregon (1846): Forty-ninth parallel established by the U.S. and Britain as the boundary for Oregon. Mexican Cession (1848): Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo – Mexican defeat leads to the loss of its northern territories, for which the U.S. paid $15 Million. Gadsden Purchase (1853): U.S. purchase of a strip of land from Mexico for $10 Million to complete a southern transcontinental railroad.
7. Expansion and Reform (cont.) In constructing an essay, how does one make connections between events, movements, and effects and the intellectual origins that shaped them? Often students will write about the philosophical or ideological influences of a period separate from what was actually happening at that time. A more effective and analytical approach is to use the ideas to explain motivations and causation. For example, in making a connection between the Second Great Awakening, transcendentalism, romanticism, and the reform spirit of the antebellum period. You may assert that these movements asked individuals to get in touch with their own emotions rather than their sense of reason. Thus, while an individual in the antebellum period might present a reasonable economic and social justification for the existence of slavery, one responding to emotional visions of enslavement and degradation might very well come to the conclusion that the institution of slavery was simply barbaric.
8. The Civil War and Reconstruction There are usually numerous causes that explain why an event happened. Some are more important than others, but an understanding of the many causes will allow you to write a fuller free-response or DBQ essay, in addition to scoring well on the multiple choice section of the AP Exam. If you are explaining why the Civil War occurred, a response such as “To free the slaves” would be seriously inadequate. To preserve the Union To establish the authority of the Federal Government To reaffirm States’ Rights
9. The Civil War and Reconstruction (Cont.) A good way to organize your understanding of the causes of the war is to consider if the war was reconcilable or irreconcilable. In other words, could it have been prevented? The fact that it did happen does not mean that it had to happen. For example, some historians claim that a generation of bumbling politicians in the 1850s could not match the compromises reached by Henry Clay, John C. Calhoun, and Daniel Webster prior to 1850. Other historians contend that fire-eaters in the South and radical abolitionists in the North exacerbated the relationship between more moderate politicians, making compromise impossible. Still others argue that a dual civilization – the South based on a culture of slavery, the North on a culture of wage labor – could no longer be sustained under the same government. Lincoln may have had something like this in mind when he declared: “A house divided against itself cannot stand. I believe this government cannot endure permanently half slave and half free. It will become all one thing or all the other”.
10. The Civil War and Reconstruction (Cont.) As much as any period in U.S. History, historians hold widely divergent views about the causes, ramifications, successes, and failures of Reconstruction. You should attempt to read as widely as possible on the interpretive nature of the debate over this topic. Should the College Board offer a free response question or a DBQ on Reconstruction, an understanding of various historians interpretations will provide you with a broader grasp of its significance as well as relevant interpretations around which you can develop your own view. Can the Government legislate morality? What types of issues prevented the short-term success of the 13th, 14th, and 15th Amendments? What role did Military Occupation play in both the utilization of rights by African Americans and in intensifying post-Reconstruction sectionalism? In what ways did the formation of the “Solid South” affect the Southern African American population.
11. The Civil War and Reconstruction (Cont.) Students sometimes ask whether they should incorporate contemporary ideas and issues into their free response and DBQ essays. Believing that history is a continuum in which the forces that shape our contemporary world have their historical antecedents, you can make connections between past and present events. For example, Lincoln’s suspension of habeas corpus rights is relevant to a discussion of the Patriot Act. Make certain, however, that you maintain your focus on the specific question that is asked of you. A question on Lincoln, the Civil War, and habeas corpus should not get lost in a political discussion on governmental powers in combatting terrorism since 9/11. Also, do not incorporate an issue into your discussion if you know little or nothing about it. College Board readers can identify these.
12. Becoming an Industrial Society A College Board essay dealing with this period will most certainly require you to understand the causes and effects of the enormous expansion of the U.S. economy in the Post-Civil War period. Business Deregulation: you must have a handle on Laissez-faire economics and Monopoly Capitalism. Men like John D. Rockefeller, Andrew Carnegie, J.P. Morgan, and Cornelius Vanderbilt amassed huge amounts of wealth. At one point 4% of the nation’s population owned 80% of the wealth. The “Robber Barons”, as they became known, used the principle of Social Darwinism to justify their unfair business practices, destruction of competition, and exploitation of workers. The hazardous working conditions, poverty wages, and long hours that workers were forced into on a daily basis led to the formation of labor unions – The American Federation of Labor, Knights of Labor, United Mine Workers. The Government, Big Business (obviously), and the public (after the Haymarket Square Riot) all opposed and obstructed the formation of labor unions. Not until the National Industrial Recovery Act – then the National Labor Relations Act (Wagner Act) – were labor unions protected by the federal government during the New Deal.
13. Becoming an Industrial Society (Cont.) Because the heart of the Populist Movement was centered in predominantly rural areas and more often than not focused on agrarian issues, it is easy to lose sight of the other forces that were drawn into the Movement. Take note of the various components of the Populists when discussing them in a free response essay. The Populists sought to forge an alliance between poor white subsistence farmers and African American tenant farmers/sharecroppers. The Populists also tried to appeal to Labor Unions and radical political parties – The American Socialist Party. They opened their membership to women Their downfall came when the movement merged with the Democrat Party – after failing to bring together the diverse groups previously mentioned – and adopting “free silver” as it main platform. The Party lost what was essentially a referendum on Populism in the Election of 1896 when William Jennings Bryan (Cross of Gold Speech) lost to William McKinley.
14. American Imperialism According to the renowned historian Frederick Jackson Turner, the frontier helped shape the democratic attributes of the American character and culture. In his famous 1893 essay, “The Significance of the Frontier in American History”, Turner put forth a thesis that as Americans moved to the West, they had consistently regenerated the societies and cultures they had previously created in the East. In the process, they had cultivated a unique American system based on democratic values and individualism. Turner’s thesis has prompted considerable discussion between historians who support his view and those who challenge it. Keep this in mind should you be presented with a College Board free response question that deals with topics such as Jacksonian Democracy, Manifest Destiny, and the New Imperialism of the late 19th Century.
15. American Imperialism (Cont.) Some social scientists maintain that U.S. Foreign Policy should not be shaped by theoretical and ethical justifications, but by Realpolitik – The “Politics of Reality” – the practical and realistic needs and concerns of the nation. Much of this discussion will come down to the Machiavellian concept of the “Ends Justifying the Means or the Means Justifying the Ends”. Does a nation base its policy on need and self-preservation or does the nation base its policy on morality and human rights? They hold that U.S. economic imperatives and political/military objectives helped shape the foreign policy adopted by the United States beginning in the late 19th Century. The realization of a global empire was a realistic and necessary objective of U.S. policymakers, they contend. Others argue that morality should be a primary factor in adopting a foreign policy, for the implementation of a policy based on realpolitik has its limitations and unintended consequences. U.S. imperialism resulted in deteriorating relations with Latin America that had to be repaired prior to World War II, then were sent back into disrepair during the Cold War. A brief discussion of realpolitik as it applies to U.S. foreign policy (in any period) may add a compelling dimension to a free response question that asks you to address foreign affairs.
16. The Progressive Movement During the Progressive Era four Constitutional Amendments were adopted. Keep them in mind for AP free response essays: The Sixteenth Amendment (1913): provided for an income tax. Previous attempts to create an income tax has been deemed unconstitutional by the Supreme Court. The tax was meant to offset lower tariffs. The Seventeenth Amendment (1913): replaced the method of selecting U.S. Senators as prescribed in the Constitution – by State Legislatures – with direct election of Senators by popular vote. The Eighteenth Amendment (1919): prohibited the manufacture, sale, and transportation of intoxicating liquors within the United States. Many reformers blamed alcohol for many of societies problems. The ban on alcohol led to speakeasies, bootlegging, government corruption, and organized crime – a period known as the Era of Lawlessness. (the ban was lifted in 1933 by the 21st Amendment repealing the 18th. The Nineteenth Amendment (1920): granted women the right to vote in federal elections (numerous states – particularly in the West – had already passed legislation allowing women to vote in State elections). No state could deny or abridge this right.
17. American involvement in World War I In explaining any historical effect, you should distinguish between short- and long-term causes. U.S. intervention in World War I did not suddenly occur. For example, German violations of American neutrality had long been a source of tension between the two nations. You could even enter into your essay that America’s commitment to the rights of neutrals dated all the way back to the War of 1812, which the U.S. entered primarily because of Britain’s policy of impressment. However, there were important short-term causes of President Wilson’s decision to declare war on the Central Powers: Germany’s decision to renew U-boat attacks on neutral shipping – resuming their policy of Unrestricted Submarine Warfare. The Zimmerman Note, which had a profound impact on American public opinion. The Russian Revolution, which overthrew the Romanov Dynasty – and satisfied Wilson’s concerns regarding a U.S. alliance with an autocratic Russia and allowed him to claim that the war was being fought to make the world safe for democracy. The communists would have been no better for Wilson, but their first order of business was to withdraw Russia from World War I.
18. Boom and Bust What was it about the 1920s that seems so important and unique that it deserves a separate chapter? As with all historical questions, the answer is very much interpretive. Some historians see the period as essentially one in which Americans became increasingly identified with consumerism and materialism. Repudiating the reforms associated with the pre-World War I era and embracing conservatism and even racism and reactionary politics. Conservative, pro-business Presidents fostered a climate conducive to business expansion. Easy Credit, Installment Plan Purchasing, Buying on Margin in the Stock Exchange, and more caused an economic boom that was propped up on credit and caused massive spikes in personal debt. Challenges to the stability of such rampant consumerism were seen as threats (Civil Rights protests, Communist and Anarchist agitators, job competition from minorities, women, and immigrants were all frowned upon by mainstream culture). Other historians see the reaction by more traditional and conservative citizens as a legitimate attempt to preserve the values they associated with being an American, which was expressed, for example: in nativism and antimodernism. Urbanization, immigration, and the Great Migration were destroying traditional American (rural) values. What is more, many Americans were responding to what they viewed as an unhealthy expansion of federal power as a not unexpected consequence of the development and expansion of the American economy. The Mellon Tax Plan defined the Conservative approach to shrinking the government through deregulation, tax cuts for the wealthy, and a “trickle down” approach to the econmy. To be sure, this is a sampling of interpretations, but you should be conscious of divergent perspectives, as well as how many of the issues that shaped an earlier historical period are contemporary concerns as well. For example can we find any themes associated with the 1920s (deregulation, consumerism, reactionary politics, etc.) in the decades of the 1950s or 1980s?
19. Boom and Bust (Cont.) When studying this period, students are frequently overwhelmed or confused by the vast assortment of New Deal programs, legislature, and agencies. You will find that organizing agencies according to the particular purpose – work relief, agricultural assistance, industrial regulation, etc. – , by date, or by category – Relief, Recovery, or Reform. Important programs include: Civilian Conservation Corps Emergency Bank Act (Bank Holiday) Agricultural Adjustment Act National Industrial Recovery Act Wagner Act (reaffirmed protection of Labor Unions) Glass-Steagall Act (FDIC) Social Security Act Works Progress Administration (Federal Arts Program) Securities and Exchange Commission Tennessee Valley Authority
20. American involvement in World War II In order to comprehend the conflict in ideologies that shaped the economic and political structures of the combatants, the following definitions may be helpful: Fascism (Germany, Italy, Japan, Spain): An authoritarian, anti-democratic economic and political system that subordinates the individual to the needs of the state and national party. For example, trade unions are outlawed because they promote the interests of laborers, not of the nation. Obedience to the nation’s leader borders on cult-like Communism (The Soviet Union): A social, political, and economic system in which private ownership of the means of production is controlled by the state. A key objective of communism is to rid society of class-based interests and the exploitation of the working class by Capitalist, imperialist, fascist oppressors. Democratic-Republicanism (The United States and Great Britain): A political system in which certain basic rights and privileges are guaranteed to all citizens, who in turn have the right to elect representatives to serve their interests and those of the nation at various levels of government. Totalitarianism (Germany, Italy, Japan, the Soviet Union): Similar in several respects to a fascist society, a totalitarian system requires obedience to the leader (cult of personality) and the needs of the state. Consequently, the government controls most aspects of society, such as education (state-sponsored brain washing) and the legal system.
21. The Cold War at Home and Abroad The post-war decades were filled with turmoil, especially the 1960s. In order to understand this decade better, you need a working knowledge of the countercultural movements that shaped American domestic life. The decade was characterized by the rebelliousness of America’s youth in response to what many perceived as the socially stifling mores and lifestyles of the 1950s: Many of the nation’s “Baby Boomers” sought to combat the social ills they saw as fundamentally undemocratic: racism, poverty, inequality, and American foreign policy (Containment, Brinksmanship, etc.) – especially in Vietnam. In the early 1960s, for example, Students for a Democratic Society (SDS) was formed with the intention of democratizing the institutions that shaped American life, such as universities and the government. A new generation of feminists (led by Betty Friedan and Gloria Steinem) re-engaged the Women’s Rights Movement, which worked to raise the consciousness of women themselves and society as a whole and pressed for profound changes (Equal Pay Act, Equal Rights Amendment, Title IX) in both social and political life. Minority groups began using a variety of methods (Civil Disobedience, Militant Resistance, etc.) to press for greater freedom and the acknowledgement of basic freedoms provided by the Constitution. Leaders like Dr. Martin Luther King, Caesar Chavez, Malcolm X, Russell Means, etc. provided leadership to the various efforts to gain social, economic, and political freedom. The Hippie Movement expressed their pacifist agenda in opposition to the War in Vietnam through music, new clothing styles, and challenges to traditional social values (Sex, Drugs, and Rock n’ Roll – Peace and Love). The Haight-Ashbury district became the epicenter of the Hippie Movement and Woodstock its Mecca. The transformation of the Beatles may be the best example of the Hippie Movement’s impact on society.
22. The Cold War at home and abroad (Cont.) Who started the Cold War? The responsibility for starting the Cold War has been an enduring topic of discussion among historians for over half a century. Predictably, a simple answer is not the case here. For the most part historians are seriously divided in their analysis of the causes of the Cold War: One perspective claims that ideology was at the center of the conflict. That is, there existed an ideological incompatibility between the United States, which stood for freedom and democracy, and the Soviet Union, which was grounded in tyranny and imperialism. Thus, the United States adopted a policy that at the very least would contain the “Evil Empire” or, possibly, even assist in its demise. Another viewpoint is that the Cold War was less an expression of ideology than an objective by which each power could enhance its national interests. As for the Soviets, they were practicing the same policies of expansionism and distrust of the outside world as they had under the tsars. For example, the Soviets often distrusted Nuclear disarmament plans believing they were meant to trick them and keep them from fulfilling their goal of nuclear parity with the United States. For other historians, the onus for starting the Cold War rests with both the United States and Soviet Union. The Cold War could have been prevented had it not been for misperceptions, misguided idealism, and unfounded suspicions. A fourth view places the blame for starting the Cold War on the United States. During the Bolshevik Revolution the U.S. had supported the counterrevolutionaries. The Soviets would always argue that imperialism was in the nature of Capitalism and distrusted American objectives as a consequence. This perspective would argue that an aggressive and exploitative American foreign policy was to blame for the Soviet’s lack of trust in the Western World.
23. 1980s to Present Note some of the comparisons that can be drawn between different periods in United States History. For example, historians have drawn some parallels between the 1920s and the 1980s. Both decades were dominated by political conservatives: (1920s) Harding, Coolidge, and Hoover (1980s) Reagan and Bush served as President. The economic approach in the two decades is also similar: (1920s) The Mellon Tax Plan and (1980s) Supply-Side Economics – Reaganomics – featured tax cuts for the wealthy and corporations meant to stimulate capital investment. Be careful not to over-play the comparisons between the two decades as each is unique in its own way, but know that these similarities do exist.