The Muslim World Expands & An Age of Exploration and Isolation

1. The Muslim World Expands & An Age of Exploration and Isolation AP World History Unit #8 Chapters 18 and 19

2. Ghazis • “Warriors for Islam”; Many Anatolian Turks saw themselves as ghazis in their wars against the Byzantine Empire. They formed military societies under the leadership of an emir, a chief commander, and followed strict Islamic codes of conduct. • The most successful ghazi was Osman. People in the West called him Othman and named his followers Ottomans. Osman built a small Muslim state in Anatolia between 1300 and 1326. His successors expanded it by buying land, forming alliances with some emirs and conquering others. The Ottomans’ military success was largely based on the use of gunpowder. They replaced their archers on horseback with musket-carrying foot soldiers. They also were among the first people to use cannons as weapons of attack. Even heavily walled cities fell to an all-out attack by the Turks. • The second Ottoman leader, Orkhan I, was Osman’s son. He felt strong enough to declare himself sultan, meaning “overlord” or “one with power”. And in 1361, the Ottomans captured Adrianople, the second most important city in the Byzantine Empire. A new Turkish empire was on the rise. The Ottomans acted wisely toward the people they conquered. They ruled through local officials appointed by the sultans and often improved the lives of the peasants. Most Muslims had to serve in Turkish armies and make contributions required by their faith. Non-Muslims did not have to serve in the army but had to pay for their exemption with a small tax. • The rise of the Ottoman Empire was briefly interrupted in the early 1400s by a rebellious warrior and conqueror from Samarkand in Central Asia. Permanently injured by an arrow in the leg, he was called Timur-i-Lang, or Timur the Lame. Europeans called him Tamerlame. Timur burned the powerful city of Baghdad in present-day Iraq to the ground. He crushed the Ottoman forces in the Battle of Ankara in 1402. This defeat battled the expansion of their empire.

3. Ottomans • Name given to the followers of Osman, the most successful Anatolian Turkish Ghazi. Between 1300 and 1326 Osman built a small Muslim state on the Anatolian peninsula. His descendants expanded it by buying land, forming alliances with some emirs, and conquering others. In 1451, aided by the use of guns and canons, the Ottomans conquered the Byzantine Empire, establishing themselves as the most powerful force in the Middle East. • The Anatolian Peninsula , which is surrounded by the Black Sea (North), the Aegean Sea (West) and the Mediterranean Sea (South), was an important center of trade between Asia and Europe In the late 13th century, a new group of Turks under their leader Osman began to build power in the northwest corner of the Anatolian Peninsula. In the early 14th century, the Osman Turks began to expand and began the Ottoman dynasty. The Sea of Marmara separates the Anatolian Peninsula from Eastern Europe, connecting the Black and Aegean Seas. The Ottomans expanded west-ward and eventually controlled the Bosporous and the Dardanelles. These two straits (narrow passageways), separated by the Sea of Marmara, connect the Black Sea and the Aegean Sea, which leads to the Mediterranean. The Byzantines had controlled this area for centuries. • Timur the Lame turned his attention to China after destroying Baghdad. When he did, war broke out among the four sons of the Ottoman sultan. Mehmed I defeated his brothers and took the throne. His son, Murad II, defeated the Venetians, invaded Hungary, and overcame an army of Italian crusaders in the Balkans. He was the first of four powerful sultans who led the expansion of the Ottoman Empire through 1566. Murad’s son Mehmed II achieved the most dramatic feat in Ottoman history. By the time Mehmed took power in 1451, the ancient city of Constantinople had shrunk from a population of a million to a mere 50,000. Although it controlled no territory outside its walls, it still dominated the Bosporous Strait. Controlling this waterway meant that it could choke off traffic between the Ottomans’ territories in Asia and in the Balkans.

4. Sultan • Sultan – The supreme authority in both politics and the military in the Ottoman Empire; the position was hereditary, passed from father to son. • Under the rule of the sultans, the Ottoman Empire grew strong. Religious tolerance and unique architectural designs, as seen in the mosques, were among the Ottoman Empire’s strengths and contributions. Gunpowder Empire were formed by outside conquerors who unified the regions that they conquered due to their mastery of the technology of firearms. A son of the sultan, although not necessarily the eldest, always succeeded the father. This practice led to struggles over succession upon the death of individual sultans. The losers of these struggles were often executed. A harem, literally meaning “Sacred Place”, was the private domain of the Sultan where he and his wives resided. Often a sultan chose 4 wives as his favorites. When a son became Sultan, his mother became known as the queen mother and acted as a major adviser to the throne. • The Grand Vizier was the Sultan’s chief minister; The Vizier led meetings of the Sultan’s imperial council and during these meetings the Vizier acted as the voice of the Sultan. During the council meetings, the sultan sat behind a screen, overhearing the proceedings, and then privately indicated his desires to the grand vizier. The empire was divided into provinces and districts, each governed by officials. They were assisted by bureaucrats who had been trained in a palace school for officials in Istanbul. The sultan gave land to senior officials. They were then responsible for collecting taxes and supplying armies for the empire from this landed area. The Ulema were a group of religious advisers to the Sultan who administered the legal system and schools for educating Muslims. The Ottomans were Sunni Muslims. In theory, the Sultan was responsible for guiding the flock and maintaining Islamic law. In practice, the Sultans gave their religious duties to the Ulema. The Ottoman system was generally tolerant of non-Muslims, who made a significant minority within the empire. Non-Muslims paid a tax, but they were allowed to practice their religion or convert to Islam. • Mehmed II decided to face the Byzantines head-on. “Give me Constantinople!” he thundered shortly after taking power at age 21. Then, in 1453, he launched his attack. Mehmed’s Turkish forces began firing on the city walls with mighty canons. One of these was a 26-foot gun that fired 1,200-pound boulders. A chain across the Golden Horn between the Bosporus Strait and the Sea of Marmara kept the Turkish fleet out of the city’s harbor. Finally, one night Mehmed’s army tried a daring tactic. They dragged 70 ships over a hill on greased runners from the Bosporus to the harbor. Now Mehmed’s army was attacking Constantinople from two sides. The city held out for over seven weeks, but the Turks finally found a break in the wall and entered the city.

5. Timur the Lame • A Mongol warrior from Samarkand in Central Asia who, in the early 1400s, invaded Ottoman territory. Timur’s forces burned the powerful city of Baghdad to the ground and crushed the Ottomans at the Battle of Ankara in 1402, halting the expansion of the Ottomans. However, Timur’s forces abandoned the Middle East to invade China in 1404 and Timur died of illness one year later. • The empire of the Mongols under TimurLenk (Tamerlane) collapsed in the early 15th century, leaving the area in a state of anarchy, without any recognized leadership. The modern nations of Iran, Iraq Afghanistan, and Pakistan inhabit this region today. The Ottoman sultans were enthusiastic patrons of the arts. The period from Mehmed II to the early 18th century witnessed a flourishing production of pottery; rugs, silk, and other textiles; jewelry; and arms and armor. All of these adorned the palaces of the rulers. Artists came from all over the world to compete for the sultans’ generous rewards. By far the greatest contribution of the Ottoman Empire to world art was in architecture, especially the magnificent mosques of the last half of the 16th century. The Ottoman Turks modeled their mosques on the open floor plan of Constantinople’s Byzantine church of Hagia Sophia, creating a prayer hall with an open central area under one large dome. The greatest of all Ottoman architects in the mid-16th century was Sinan. He oversaw the building of 81 mosques, each topped by a large dome and often framed with four towers, or minarets. • Mehmed’s grandson, Selim the Grim, came to power in 1512. He was an effective sultan and a great general. In 1514, he defeated the Safavids of Persia at the Battle of Chaldiran. Then he swept south through Syria and Palestine and into North Africa. At the same time that Cortez was toppling the Aztec Empire in the Americas, Selim’s empire took responsibility for Mecca and Medina. Finally, he took Cairo, the intellectual center of the Muslim world. The once-great civilization of Egypt had become just another province in the growing Ottoman Empire. The Ottoman Empire didn’t reach its peak size and grandeur until the reign of Selim’s son, Suleyman I. Suleyman came to the throne in 1520 and ruled for 46 years. His own people called him Suleyman the Lawgiver. He was known in the West, though, as Suleyman the Magnificent.

6. Mehmed II • Mehmed II – Leader of the Ottomans from 1451 to 1481; Mehmed’s forces conquered the Byzantine capital of Constantinople in 1453, renaming it Istanbul. After his victory, Mehmed opened Constantinople to new citizens of many religions and backgrounds. Jews, Christians, & Muslims, Turks and non-Turks all flowed in. They helped rebuilt the city, which was renamed Istanbul. • With 80,000 Ottoman troops ranged against only 7,000 Byzantine defenders, Mehmed laid siege to Constantinople on April 6th, 1453. The Ottomans bombarded the city with massive cannons hurling stone balls weighing up to 1,200 pounds each. The Byzantines took their final stand behind the walls along the western edge of the city. They fought desperately for almost two months to save their city. Finally, on May 29th, the walls were breached, and Ottoman soldiers poured into the city. The Byzantine emperor died in the final battle, and a great three-day sack of the city began. When Mehmed II saw the ruin and destruction, he lamented, “What a city we have given over to plunder and destruction.” • Sultan Selim I was the ruler of the Ottoman Empire from 1481 to 1520; Selim led successful conquests into Mesopotamia, Egypt and Arabia, establishing Ottoman control of several of Islam’s holy cities, including Jerusalem, Makkah(Mecca) & Madinah(Medina). Selim declared himself the new caliph, the defender of Islam and successor to Muhammad. After their victories in the east, Ottoman forces spent the next few years advancing westward along the African coast almost to the Strait of Gibraltar. • Pashas were officials in the Ottoman Empire who collected taxes, maintained law and order, and were responsible to maintain the sultan’s court in Constantinople. After capturing Constantinople in 1453, the Ottoman Turks tried to complete their conquest of the Balkans, taking the Romanian territory of Walachia, but the Hungarians stopped their advance up the Danube valley. Under Sultan Suleyman I, the Ottomans pushed into Austria but were defeated at Vienna in 1529. Until the late 1600s the Ottoman Empire remained a threat to central Europe. Closure Question #1: Do you think that the Ottomans were wise in staffing their military and government with slaves? Explain.

7. Suleyman the Lawgiver • Ruler of the Ottoman Empire from 1520 to 1566; During Suleyman’s reign the Empire reached its peak size, conquering all of the Eastern Mediterranean Sea and invading into Hungary and Austria. To govern his vast empire, Suleyman created a law code to handle both criminal and civil actions, simplified and limited taxes, and systematized and reduced government bureaucracy. These changes improved the lives of most citizens and made Suleyman the most powerful monarch on earth. • Suleyman was a superb military leader. He conquered the important European city of Belgrade in 1521. The next year, Turkish forces captured the island of Rhodes in the Mediterranean and now dominated the whole eastern Mediterranean. Applying their immense naval power, the Ottomans captured Tripoli on the coast of North Africa. They continued conquering peoples along the North African coastline. Although the Ottomans occupied only the coastal cities of North Africa, they managed to control trade routes to the interior of the continent. In 1526, Suleyman advanced into Hungary and Austria, throwing central Europe into a panic. Suleyman’s armies then pushed to the outskirts of Vienna, Austria. Reigning from Istanbul, Suleyman had waged war with central Europeans, North Africans, and Central Asians. Only Charles V, head of the Hapsburg Empire in Europe, came close to rivaling his power. • Binding the Ottoman Empire together in a workable social structure was Suleyman’s crowning achievement. The massive empire required an efficient government structure and social organization. In the halls of the U.S. Congress are images of some of the greatest lawgivers of all time. Included in that group are such persons as Thomas Jefferson, Moses, and Suleyman. Suleyman’s law code prescribed penalties for various criminal acts and for bureaucratic and financial corruption. He also sought to reduce bribes, did not allow imprisonment without a trial, and rejected promotions that were not based on merit. He also introduced the idea of a balanced budget for governments.

8. Devshirme • System which provided slave labor for the Ottoman Empire. The Sultan’s army drafted boys from the peoples of conquered Christian territories. The army educated them, converted them to Islam, and trained them as soldiers. 20,000 of these men became the sultan’s personal slaves and staffed the palace bureaucracy. • As a Muslim, Suleyman was required to follow Islamic law. In accordance with Islamic law, the Ottomans granted freedom of worship to other religious communities, particularly to Christians and Jews. They treated these communities as millets, or nations. They allowed each millet to follow its own religious laws and practices. The head of the millets reported to the sultan and his staff. This system kept conflict among people of the various religions to a minimum. • Suleyman had broad interests, which contributed to the cultural achievements of the empire. He found time to study poetry, history, geography, astronomy, mathematics, and architecture. He employed one of the world’s finest architects, Sinan, who was probably from Albania. Sinan’s masterpiece, the Mosque of Suleyman, is an immense complex topped with domes and half domes. It includes four schools, a library, a bath, and a hospital. Art and literature also flourished under Suleyman’s rule. This creative period was similar to the European Renaissance. Painters and poets looked to Persia and Arabia for models. The works that they produced used these foreign influences to express original Ottoman ideas in the Turkish style. They are excellent examples of cultural blending.

9. Janissaries • The elite guard of the Ottoman dynasty; The Janissaries were men who were recruited from the Christian Balkan population, converted to Islam, and made the personal servants of the Ottoman Sultan. • As knowledge of firearms spread in the late 14th century the Ottomans began to master the new technology. The janissaries, trained as a well-armed infantry, were able to spread Ottoman control in the Balkans. With their new forces, the Ottomans defeated the Serbs at the Battle of Kosovo in 1389. During the 1390s, the Ottomans advanced northward and annexed Bulgaria. Over the next 300 years, Ottoman rule expanded to areas in western Asia, North Africa, and Europe. • Despite Suleyman’s magnificent social and cultural achievements, the Ottoman Empire was losing ground. Suleyman killed his ablest son and drove another into exile. His third son, the incompetent Selim II, inherited the throne. Suleyman set the pattern for later sultans to gain and hold power. It became customary for each new sultan to have his brothers strangled. The sultan would then keep his sons prisoner in the harem, cutting them off from education or contact with the world. This practice produced a long line of weak sultans who eventually brought ruin on the empire. However, the Ottoman Empire continued to influence the world into the early 20th century. Closure Question #2: How did Suleyman’s selection of a successor eventually spell disaster for the Ottoman Empire?

10. Closure Assignment #1 Answer the following questions based on what you have learned from Chapter 18, Section 1: Do you think that the Ottomans were wise in staffing their military and government with slaves? Explain. How did Suleyman’s selection of a successor eventually spell disaster for the Ottoman Empire? Do you think that Suleyman’s religious tolerance helped or hurt the Ottoman Empire? Explain.

11. Cultural Blending • The cultural changes caused by interaction between two groups. Cultural blending is most often caused by one or more of the following four activities: migration, pursuit of religious freedom or conversion, trade, and conquest. Cultural blending leads to changes in language, religion and ethical systems, styles of government, racial or ethnic blending, and arts and architecture. • Each time a culture interacts with another, it is exposed to ideas, technologies, foods, and ways of life not exactly like its own. Continental crossroads, trade routes, ports, and the borders of countries are places where cultural blending commonly begins. Societies that are able to benefit from cultural blending are those that are open to new ways and are willing to adapt and change. The blended ideas spread throughout the culture and produce a new pattern of behavior. Cultural blending has several basic causes. The blending that contributed to the culture of the Ottomans, which you just read about in Section 1, depended on some of these activities. Surrounded by the peoples of Byzantium, the Turks were motivated to win territory for their empire. The Ottoman Empire’s location on a major trading route created many opportunities for contact with different cultures. Suleyman’s interest in learning and culture prompted him to bring the best foreign artists and scholars to his court. They brought new ideas about art, literature, and learning to the empire. • Cultural blending may lead to changes in language, religion, styles of government, the use of technology, and military tactics. These changes often reflect unique aspects of several cultures. Sometimes the written characters of one language are used in another, as in the case of written Chinese characters used in the Japanese language. In the Safavid Empire, the language spoken was Persian. But after the area converted to Islam, a significant number of Arabic words appeared in the Persian language. Buddhism spread throughout Asia. Yet the Buddhism practiced by Tibetans is different from Japanese Zen Buddhism. The concept of democratic government spread to many areas of the globe. Although the basic principles are similar, it is not practiced exactly the same way in each country. Closure Question #1: Which of the results of cultural blending do you think has the most lasting effect on a country? Explain.

12. Safavid • Safavid – Shia Muslim dynasty established in the 15th century which controlled territory in southern Asia bordered by India (east), Russia (north), and the Ottoman Empire (west). Originally members of an Islamic religion brotherhood, the Safavids built a powerful army under the leadership of Isma’il and established a religious state. Any citizen who did not convert to Shi’ism was put to death. The Safavids clashed repeatedly with the Ottoman Sunnis. • Shah Esma’il was the founder of the Safavid dynasty; a devout Shia Muslim, Esma’il was a descendant of Saftod-Din, who had established a community of Turks in Azerbaijan, near the Caspian Sea. Esma’il led Shia Muslims to conquer much of Iran and Iraq in 1501 and gradually expanded Safavid control in southern Asia. The Shia faith was used as a unifying force in the Safavid empire. Esma’il made conversion to Shia Islam mandatory for all living in his empire. Many Sunnis were killed or exiled as a result. • Conquest and ongoing cultural interaction fueled the development of the Safavid Empire. Originally, the Safavids were members of an Islamic religions brotherhood named after the founder, Safi al-Din. In the 15th century, the Safavids aligned themselves with the Shi’a branch of Islam. The Safavids were also squeezed geographically between the Ottomans and Uzbek tribespeople and the Mughal Empire. To protect themselves from these potential enemies, the Safavids concentrated on building a powerful army. The Safavid military became a force to reckon with. In 1499, a 12-year-old named Isma’il began to seize most of what is now Iran. Two years later he completed the task. To celebrate his achievement, he took the ancient Persian title of shah, or king. He also established Shi’a Islam as the state religion. Closure Question #2: Why might Isma’il have become so intolerant of the Sunni Muslims?

13. Shah • Shah – “King”; leaders of the Safavid Dynasty assumed this title and, like the Ottoman sultans, claimed to be the spiritual leaders of all Islam. • Esma’il sent Shia preachers into the Anatolian Peninsula to convert members of Turkish tribes in the Ottoman Empire. The Ottoman sultan tried to halt this activity, but Esma’il refused to stop. Esma’il also ordered the massacre of Sunni Muslims when he conquered Baghdad in 1508. Tabriz was the original capital of the Safavid Dynasty established by Esma’il. Located in disputed territory between the Safavids and Ottomans just north of modern Iraq, Tabriz became the sight of many battles between the two empires. Alarmed by the activities of the Safavids, the Ottoman sultan, Selim I, advanced against the Safavids in Persia. With their muskets and artillery, the Ottomans won a major battle near Tabriz. However, Selim could not maintain control of the area and a few years later Esma’il regained Tabriz. • The Safavid rulers were eagerly supported by the Shias. In return, the shahs declared Shia Islam to be the state religion. Shahs were more available to their subjects than were rulers elsewhere. “The show great familiarity to strangers,” remarked one visitor, “and even to their own subjects, eating and drinking with them pretty freely.” • The Safavid shahs played an active part in trade and manufacturing activity. Most goods in the empire traveled by horse or camel caravans, and the roads were kept fairly clear of thieves and bandits. Safavid Persia was probably not as prosperous as its neighbors to the east and west – the Moguls and the Ottomans. Hemmed in by the sea power of the Europeans to the south and the land power of the Ottomans to the west, the Safavids found trade difficult. Riza-i-Abbasi was the most famous artist during the Safavid dynasty; soft colors and flowing movement dominated the features of Safavid painting.

14. Shah Abbas • Grandson of Shah Isma’il who ruled to Safavid Empire beginning in 1587; Abbas, similar to Suleyman in the Ottoman Empire, led the Safavids at the height of their power. He reformed the government to eliminate corruption, encouraged religious toleration and trade with Europe, and supported the arts, bringing hundred of Chinese artisans to teach the Safavids intricate metalwork, miniature paintings, pottery, and weaving. Persian carpets, woven with intricate designs and made in the Safavid Empire, became extremely popular in Europe. • In the 1580s, the Ottomans went on the attack. They placed Azerbaijan under Ottoman rule and controlled the Caspian Sea with their fleet. This forced the new Safavid shah, ‘Abbas, to sign a peace treaty in which he lost much territory in the northwest. Esfaban was the 2nd capital of the Safavid Dynasty; established by Shah ‘Abbas after Safavids were defeated by Ottomans in the late 16th century and located in the heart of modern-day Iran. • ‘Abbas adorned his new capital city with the latest Persian architecture. Esfaban became one of the world’s largest cities with a population of one million. Under ‘Abbas, who ruled from 1588 to 1629, the Safavids reached the high point of their glory. Similar to the Ottoman Empire, administrators were trained to run the kingdom. Shah ‘Abbas also strengthened his army, which he armed with the latest weapons. After the death of ‘Abbas in 1629, the Safavid dynasty gradually lost its vigor. Most of ‘Abbas’ successors lacked his talent and political skills. • Shah Abbas reformed aspects of both military and civilian life. He limited the power of the military and created two new armies that would be loyal to him alone. One of these was an army of Persians. The other was a force that Abbas recruited from the Christian north and modeled after the Ottoman janissaries. He equipped both of these armies with modern artillery. Abbas also reformed his government. He punished corruption severely and promoted only officials who proved their competence and loyalty. He hired foreigners from neighboring countries to fill positions in the government.

15. Esfahan • The 2nd capital of the Safavid Dynasty; established by Shah ‘Abbas after Safavids were defeated by Ottomans in the late 16th century and located in the heart of modern-day Iran. • Orthodoxy is strict belief in and obedience to traditional religious teachings The power of Shia religious elements began to increase in the Safavid court and in society at large. Intellectual freedom marked the height of the empire. However, the pressure to conform to traditional religious beliefs increased in the 17th century. For example, Persian women had considerable freedom during the early empire. In the 17th century however they were forced into seclusion and required to adopt the wearing of the veil. In the early 18th century, during the reign of Shah Hussein, Afghan peoples invaded and seized the capital of Esfaban. The remnants of the Safavid ruling family were forced to retreat to Azerbaijan, their original homeland. Anarchy is lawlessness and disorder; following the collapse of the Safavid dynasty its territory entered a long period of political and social anarchy. • With a design that covered four and a half miles, Esfahan was considered one of the most beautiful in the world. It was a showplace for the many artisans, both foreign and Safavid, who worked on the buildings and the objects in them. For example, 300 Chinese potters produced glazed building tiles for the buildings in the city, and Armenians wove carpets. Shah Abbas brought hundreds of Chinese artisans to Esfahan. Working with Safavid artists, they produced intricate metalwork, miniature paintings, caligraphy, glasswork, tile work, and pottery. This collaboration gave rise to artwork that blended Chinese and Persian ideas. These decorations beautified the many mosques, palaces, and marketplaces. • The most important result of Western influence on the Safavids, however, may have been the demand for Persian carpets. This demand helped change carpet weaving from a local craft to a national industry. In the beginning, the carpets reflected traditional Persian themes. As the empire became more culturally blended, the designs incorporated new themes. In the 16th century, Shah Abbas sent artists to Italy to study under the Renaissance artist Raphael. Rugs then began to reflect European designs. Closure Question #3: How did the location of the Safavid Empire contribute to the cultural blending in the empire?

16. Closure Assignment #2 Answer the following questions based on what you have learned from Chapter 18, Section 2: Which of the results of cultural blending do you think has the most lasting effect on a country? Explain. Why might Isma’il have become so intolerant of the Sunni Muslims? How did the location of the Safavid Empire contribute to the cultural blending in the empire?

17. Mughals • Mughals - Natives of the mountainous region north of the Indus River valley who established a dynasty which controlled most of India from 1526 to 1707. The Mughal culture combined the religion of Islam with the warring nature of the Mongols. • The Gupta Empire crumbled in the late 400s. First, Huns from Central Asia invaded. Then, beginning in the 700s, warlike Muslim tribes from Central Asia carved northwestern India into many small kingdoms. The people who invaded descended from Muslim Turks and Afghans. Their leader was a descendant of Timur the Lame and of the Mongol conqueror Genghis Khan. They called themselves Mughals, which means “Mongols”. The land they invaded had been through a long period of turmoil. • The 8th century began with a long clash between Hindus and Muslims in this land of many kingdoms. For almost 300 years, the Muslims were able to advance only as far as the Indus River valley. Starting around the year 1000, however, well-trained Turkish armies swept into India. Led by Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni, they devastated Indian cities and temples in 17 brutal campaigns. These attacks left the region weakened and vulnerable to other conquerors. Delhi eventually became the capital of a loose empire of Turkish warlords called the Delhi Sultanate. These sultans treated the Hindus as conquered people. • Between the 13th and 16th centuries, 33 different sultans ruled this divided territory from their seat in Delhi. In 1398, Timur the Lame destroyed Delhi. The city was so completely devastated that according to one witness, “for months, not a bird moved in the city.” Delhi eventually was rebuilt. But it was not until the 16th century that a leader arose who would unify the empire. In 1494, an 11-year-old boy named Babur inherited a kingdom in the area that is now Uzbekistan and Tajikstan. It was only a tiny kingdom, and his elders soon took it away and drove him south. But Babur built up an army. In the years that followed, he swept down into India and laid the foundation for the vast Mughal Empire.

18. Babur • Babur – The founder of the Mughal dynasty; a descendant of Gengis Khan & Timur the Lame, Babur’s small forces used modern weaponry, including firearms, to conquer northern India by 1526. • Delhi. a city in northern India, was captured by Babur in 1526. Babur had inherited a part of TimurLenk’s empire in an upland river valley of the SyrDar’ya. As a youth he led a group of warriors who seized Kabul in 1504. Thirteen years later, Babur’s forces crossed the Kyhber Pass into India. Babur’s forces were far smaller than those of his enemies. However, they had advanced weapons, including artillery, and used them to great effect. Babur continued his conquests in North India until his death in 1530 at the age of 47. • Babur was a brilliant general. In 1526, for example, he led 12,000 troops to victory against an army of 100,000 commanded by a sultan of Delhi. A year later, Babur also defeated a massive rajput army. After Babur’s death, his incompetent son, Humayun, lost most of the territory Babur had gained. Babur’s 13-year-old grandson took over the throne after Humayun’s death. Babur’s grandson was called Akbar, which means “Great.” Akbar certainly lived up to his name, ruling India with wisdom and tolerance from 1556 to 1605. • Akbar recognized military power as the root of his strength. In his opinion, a King must always be aggressive so that his neighbors will not try to conquer him. Like the Safavids and the Ottomans, Akbar equipped his armies with heavy artillery. Cannons enabled him to break into walled cities and extend his rule into much of the Deccan plateau. In a brilliant move, he appointed some rajputs as officers. In this way he turned potential enemies into allies. This combination of military power and political wisdom enabled Akbar to unify a land of at least 100 million people – more than in all of Europe put together. • Akbar was a genius at cultural blending. A Muslim, he continued the Islamic tradition of religious freedom. He permitted people of other religions to practice their faiths. He proved his tolerance by marrying Hindu princesses without forcing them to convert. He allowed his wives to practice their religious rituals in the palace. He proved his tolerance again by abolishing both the tax on Hindu pilgrims and the hated jizya, or tax on non-Muslims. He even appointed a Spanish Jesuit to tutor his second son.

19. Akbar • Akbar – Grandson of Babur and perhaps the greatest conquering Mogul monarch; Akbar is best known for religious tolerance. Though a Muslim himself, he granted religious freedom to his subjects, married a Hindu woman, and permitted Jesuit priests to preach in his empire. • Akbar was only 14 when he took the throne. By using heavy artillery his armies were able to overpower the stone fortresses of their rivals. The empire he established appeared highly centralized, but was actually a collection of semi-independent states held together by the power of the emperor. Zamindars were local officials chosen and given land by the emperor who were responsible to collect taxes from those living in their area and forward them to the emperor. All Indian peasants were required to pay about 1/3 of their annual harvest to the state, but the system was applied justly. When bad weather struck in the 1590s, taxes were reduced or suspended altogether. Thanks to a long period of peace and political stability, trade and manufacturing flourished. • Akbar governed through a bureaucracy of officials. Natives and foreigners, Hindus and Muslims, could all rise to high office. This approach contributed to the quality of his government. Akbar’s chief finance minister, Todar Mal, a Hindu, created a clever – and effective – taxation policy. He levied a tax similar to the present-day U.S. graduated income tax, calculating it as a percentage of the value of the peasants’ crops. Because this tax was fair and affordable, the number of peasants who paid it increased. This payment brought in much needed money for the empire. Akbar’s land policies had more mixed results. He gave generous land grants to his bureaucrats. After they died, however, he reclaimed the lands and distributed them as he saw fit. On the positive side, this policy prevented the growth of feudal aristocracies. On the other hand, it did not encourage dedication and hard work by the Mughal officials. Their children would not inherit the land or benefit from their parents’ work. So the officials apparently saw no point in devoting themselves to their property. Closure Question #1: Why were Akbar’s tax policies so successful?

20. Sikhs • A nonviolent religious group whose doctrines contained elements similar to Hinduism and Sufism (Islamic mysticism); however, the Sikhs see themselves as an independent tradition and not an offshoot of another religion. The Sikhs protected Khusrau, Akbar’s grandson who rebelled against the rule of his parents, Jahangir and NurJahan. As a result, future Mughal rulers targeted the Sikhs as their enemies, arresting and torturing many of their leaders. • As Akbar extended the Mughal Empire, he welcomed influences from the many cultures in the empire. This cultural blending affected art, education, politics, and language. Persian was the language of Akbar’s court and of high culture. The common people, however, spoke Hindi, a language derived from Sanskrit. Hindi remains one of the most widely spoken languages in India today. Out of the Mughal armies, where soldiers of many backgrounds rubbed shoulders, came yet another new language. This language was Urdu, which means “from the soldiers camp.” A blend of Arabic, Persian, and Hindi, Urdu is today the official language of Pakistan. • The arts flourished at the Mughal court, especially in the form of book illustrations. These small, highly detailed and colorful paintings were called miniatures. They were brought to a peak of perfection in the Safavid Empire. Babur’s son, Humayun, brought two masters of this art to his court to teach it to the Mughals. Some of the most famous Mughal miniatures adorned the Akbarnamah (“Book of Akbar”), the story of the great emperor’s campaigns and deeds. Indian art drew from traditions developed earlier in Rajput kingdoms. Hindu literature also enjoyed a revival in Akbar’s time. The poet Tulsi Das, for example, was a contemporary of Akbar’s. He retold the epic love story of Rama and Sita from the fourth century B.C. Indian poem the Ramayana in Hindi. This retelling, the Ramcaritmanas, is now even more popular than the original.

21. Shah Jahan • Shah Jahan – Emperor of the Mughals from 1628 to 1658; Expanded the boundaries of the empire through invasion of the Deccan Plateau (Central India) but also increased taxes, leading to poverty among his subjects. • Akbar died in 1605 and was succeeded by his son Jahangir. During the early years of his reign, he continued to strengthen the central government’s control over his vast empire. Jahangir’s power began to weaken when he fell under the influence of one of his wives, Persian-born NurJahan. As Jahangir lost interest in governing, he gave more authority to his wife. The empress used her position to enrich her own family. Shah Jahan’s rule was marred by his failure to deal with growing domestic problems. He had inherited a nearly empty treasury. His military campaigns and expensive building projects put a heavy strain on imperial finances, compelling him to raise taxes. • Akbar devoted himself to architecture too. The style developed under his reign is still known as Akbar period architecture. Its massive but graceful structures are decorated with intricate stonework that portrays Hindu themes. The capital city of FatehpurSikri is one of the most important examples of this type of architecture. Akbar had this red-sandstone city built to thank a Sufi saint, Sheik SalimChisti, who had predicted the birth of his first son. With Akbar’s death in 1605, the Mughal court changed to deal with the changing times. The next three emperors each left his mark on the Mughal Empire. • Akbar’s son called himself Jahangir, or “Grasper of the World.” However, for most of his reign, he left the affairs of state to his wife, who ruled with an iron hand. Jahangir’s wife was the Persian princess NurJahan. She was a brilliant politician who perfectly understood the use of power. As the real ruler of India, she installed her father as prime minister in the Mughal court. She saw Jahangir’s son Khusrau as her ticket to future power. But when Khusrau rebelled against his father, NurJahan removed him. She then shifted her favor to another son, Shah Jahan. Closure Question #2: Why was Nur Jahan able to hold so much power in Jahangir’s court?

22. TajMahal • TajMahal – Large building project built during the rule of Shah Jahan in the city of Agra in the mid 17th century. The project took 20 years to build and is considered the most beautiful building in India. • Women had long played an active role in Mogul tribal society. Mogul rulers often relied on female relatives for political advice. To a degree, these Mogul attitudes toward women affected Indian society. Women from aristocratic families frequently received salaries and were allowed to own land. At the same time, the Moguls placed certain restrictions on women under their interpretations of Islamic law. These practices generally were adopted by Hindus. The practice of isolating women was followed by many Hindus. • Many Hindu practices remained unchanged by Mogul rule. The custom of suttee continued in spite of efforts by the Moguls to abolish it. Child marriage also remained common. Another major artistic achievement of the Moguls was painting. Like architecture, painting in Mogul India resulted from the blending of two cultures: Persian and Indian. Akbar established a state workshop for aristists who worked under the guidance of Persian masters to create the Mogul school of painting. The “Akbar style” includes the portrayal of humans in action, and Akbar encouraged his artists to imitate European art forms. • Jahangir’s son and successor, Shah Jahan, could not tolerate competition and secured his throne by assassinating all his possible rivals. He had a great passion for two things: beautiful buildings and his wife MumtazMahal. NurJahan had arranged this marriage between Janagir’s son and her niece for political reasons. Shah Jahan, however, fell genuinely in love with his Persian princess. In 1631, MumtazMahal died at age 39 while giving birth to her 14th child. To enshrine his wife’s memory, he ordered that a tomb be built “as beautiful as she was beautiful.” Fine white marble and fabulous jewels were gathered from many parts of Asia. This memorial, the TajMahal, has been called one of the most beautiful buildings in the world. Its towering marble dome and slender minaret towers look like lace and seem to change color as the sun moves across the sky.

23. Aurangzeb • Aurangzeb – Emperor of Moguls from 1658 to 1707; expanded the Mogul Empire to its largest size, covering nearly all of India. Ended religious freedom, imposing a tax on non-Muslims and forcing Hindus to convert to Islam. • Aurangzeb is one of the most controversial rulers in the history of India. Constant warfare and religious intolerance made his subjects resentful. As a man of high principle, Aurangzeb attempted to eliminate many of what he considered to be India’s social evils. Suttee was a Hindu custom of cremating a widow alive on her husband’s funeral pyre; Aurangzeb outlawed this practice. Aurangzeb was a devout Muslim and adopted a number of measures that reversed Mogul policies of religious tolerance. He tried to forbid gambling and drinking. He also prohibited the building of new Hindu temples. These policies led to Hindu outcries and domestic unrest. A number of revolts broke out in provinces throughout the empire. After Aurangzeb’s death there were many contenders for the throne. India was increasingly divided and vulnerable to attack from abroad. In 1739, Delhi was sacked by the Persians, who left it in ashes. • Calcutta and Madras were British trading forts established in the mid-17th century from which England carried Indian-made cotton goods to the East Indies, where they were traded for spices. The arrival of the British hasted the decline of the Mogul Empire. British successes in India attracted rivals, especially the French. The French established their own forts. For a brief period, the French went on the offensive, even capturing the British fort at Madras. Closure Question #3: Why were the policies of Aurangzeb so destructive to the Mughal Empire?

24. Closure Assignment #3 Answer the following questions based on what you have learned from Chapter 18, Section 3: Why were Akbar’s tax policies so successful? Why was NurJahan able to hold so much power in Jahangir’s court? Why were the policies of Aurangzeb so destructive to the Mughal Empire?

25. Bartolomeu Dias • Portuguese explorer who, in 1488, was the first European sea captain to sail around the southern edge of Africa (The Cape of Good Hope.) Speaking on behalf of all European navigators, Dias summarized the motives behind exploration: “To serve God and His Majesty, to give light to those who were in darkness (preach Christianity) & to grow rich as all men desire to do.” • Europeans had not been completely isolated from the rest of the world before the 1400s. Beginning around 1100, European crusaders battled Muslims for control of the Holy Lands in Southwest Asia. In 1275, the Italian trader Marco Polo reached the court of Kublai Khan in China. For the most part, however, Europeans had neither the interest nor the ability to explore foreign lands. That changed by the early 1400s. The desire to grow rich and to spread Christianity, coupled with advances in sailing technology, spurred an age of European exploration. • The desire for new sources of wealth was the main reason for European exploration. Through overseas exploration, merchants and traders hoped ultimately to benefit from what had become a profitable business in Europe: the trade of spices and other luxury goods from Asia. The people of Europe had been introduced to these items during the Crusades, the wars fought between Christians and Muslims from 1096 to 1270. After the Crusades ended, Europeans continued to demand such spices as nutmeg, ginger, cinnamon, and pepper, all of which added flavor to the bland foods of Europe. Because demand for these goods was greater than the supply, merchants could charge high prices and make great profits. • The Muslims and the Italians controlled the trade of goods from East to West. Muslims sold Asian goods to Italian merchants, who controlled trade across the land routes of the Mediterranean region. The Italian merchants resold the items at increased prices to merchants throughout Europe. Other European traders did not like this arrangement. Paying such high prices to the Italians severely cut into their own profits. By the 1400s, European merchants – as well as the new monarchs of England, Spain, Portugal, and France – sought to bypass the Italian merchants. This meant finding a sea route to Asia. Closure Question #1: What were the motives behind European exploration in the 1400s? Explain.

26. Prince Henry • The son of Portugal’s king, in 1419 Henry founded a navigation school in the southwestern coast of Portugal. Mapmakers, instrument makers, shipbuilders, scientists, and sea captains gathered there to perfect their skills. Under his direction, Portugal became the European leader in sailing & exploration in the 16th century, sailing south to establish trading posts in Africa and, eventually, reaching India and the rest of Asia to control the profitable spice trade. • While “God, glory, and gold” were the primary motives for exploration, advances in technology made the voyages of discovery possible. During the 1200s, it would have been nearly impossible for a European sea captain to cross 3,000 miles of ocean and return again. The main problem was that European ships could not sail against the wind. In the 1400s, shipbuilders designed a new vessel, the caravel. The caravel was sturdier than earlier vessels. In addition, triangular sails adopted from the Arabs allowed it to sail effectively against the wind. Europeans also improved their navigational techniques. To better determine their location at sea, sailors used the astrolabe, which the Muslims had perfected. The astrolabe was a brass circle with carefully adjusted rings marked off in degrees. Using the rings to sight the stars, a sea captain could calculate latitude, or how far north or south of the equator the ship was. Explorers were also able to more accurately track direction by using a magnetic compass, a Chinese invention. • The leader in developing and applying these sailing innovations was Portugal. Located on the Atlantic Ocean at the southwest corner of Europe. Portugal was the first European country to establish trading outposts along the west coast of Africa. Eventually, Portuguese explorers pushed farther east into the Indian Ocean. The nation’s most enthusiastic supporter of exploration was Prince Henry. Henry’s dreams of overseas exploration began in 1415 when he helped conquer the Muslim city of Ceuta in North Africa. There, he had his first glimpse of the dazzling wealth that lay beyond Europe. In Ceuta, the Portuguese invaders found exotic stores filled with pepper, cinnamon, cloves, and other spices. In addition, they encountered large supplies of gold, silver, and jewels. Closure Question #2: In what ways did Europeans owe some of their sailing technology to other peoples?

27. Vasco de Gama • Vasco de Gama – Portuguese sea captain who pioneered the route from Europe south around the Cape of Good Hope (southern Africa) east to India, enabling Portugal to control the Indian Spice Trade. • Portuguese fleets began probing southward along the western coast of Africa. There they discovered gold, renaming the western African coast the Gold Coast. Portuguese warships defeated a combined fleet of Turkish and Indian ships in 1509. In 1510 they set up a port at Goa, on the western coast of India. Melaka was a spice trade port on the Malay Peninsula controlled by the Portuguese which gave them access to Asia and the Pacific Islands. Portuguese settlers signed a treaty with local rulers for the purchase and export of cloves to the European market. This treaty established Portuguese control of the Spice Trade. • Henry returned to Portugal determined to reach the source of treasures in the East. The prince also wished to spread the Christian faith. Within several years, Portuguese ships began sailing down the western coast of Africa. By the time Henry died in 1460, the Portuguese had established a series of trading posts along western Africa’s shores. There, they traded with Africans for such profitable items as gold and ivory. Eventually, they traded for African captives to be used as slaves. Having established their presence along the African coast, Portuguese explorers plotted their next move. They would attempt to find a sea route to Asia. • The Portuguese believed that to reach Asia by sea, they would have to sail around the southern tip of Africa. In 1488, Portuguese captain Bartolomeu Dias ventured far down the coast of Africa until he and his crew reached the tip. As they arrived, a huge storm rose and battered the fleet for days. When the storm ended, Dias realized his ships had been blown around the tip to the other side. Dias explored the southeast coast of Africa and then considered sailing to India. However, his crew was exhausted and food supplies were low. As a result, the captain returned home.

28. Treaty of Tordesillas • Agreement between Spain and Portugal made in 1494; An imaginary line of demarcation separated territory to be explored and controlled by each nation. Spain would have authority over North and South America west of Brazil while Portugal would have authority over Brazil, Africa, and all trade routes east. • Guangzhou was a Portuguese trading port in China, also known as Canton, established in the early 16th century. In 1514 a Portuguese fleet arrived off the coast of China. It was the first direct contact between the Chinese Empire and Europe since the journeys of Marco Polo. At the time, the Ming government thought little of the arrival of the Portuguese. China was at the height of its power as the most magnificent civilization no Earth. From the perspective of the emperor, the Europeans were only an unusual form of barbarian. To the Chinese ruler, the rulers of all other countries were simply “younger brothers” of the Chinese emperor, who was seen as the Son of Heaven. • The Portuguese soon outraged Chinese officials with their behavior. They were expelled from Guangzhou but were allowed to occupy Macao, a port on the southeastern coast of China. At first, the Portuguese had little impact on Chinese society. Portuguese ships did carry goods between China and Japan, but direct trade between Europe and China remained limited. Perhaps more important than trade, however, was the exchange of ideas. • Christian missionaries had also made the long voyage to China on European merchant ships. The Jesuits, a Catholic order that focused on education and establishing missions, were among the most active. Many of them were highly educated men who brought along instruments, such as clocks, that impressed the Chinese officials and made them more receptive to Western ideas. Both sides benefited from this early cultural exchange. Chinese scholars marveled at their ability to read better with European eyeglasses. Christian missionaries were impressed with many aspects of Chinese civilization, the printing and availability of books, and Chinese architecture. Closure Question #3: What did the Treaty of Tordesillas reveal about Europeans’ attitudes toward non-European lands and peoples?

29. Dutch East India Company • Powerful sea trading company established by the government of the Netherlands; By 1600, the Dutch owned the largest fleet of ships in the world – 20,000 vessels, and dominated trade in Asia. • In the years following da Gama’s voyage, Portugal built a bustling trading empire throughout the Indian Ocean. As the Portuguese moved into the region, they took control of the spice trade from Muslim merchants. In 1509, Portugal extended its control over the area when it defeated a Muslim fleet off the coast of India, a victory made possible by the cannons they had added aboard their ships. Portugal strengthened its hold on the region by building a fort at Hormuz in 1514. It established control of the Straits of Hormuz, connecting the Persian Gulf and Arabian Sea, and helped stop Muslim traders from reaching India. • In 1510, the Portuguese captured Goa, a port city on India’s west coast. They made it the capital of their trading empire. They then sailed farther east to Indonesia, also known as the East Indies. In 1511, a Portuguese fleet attacked the city of Malacca on the west coast of the Malay Peninsula. In capturing the town, the Portuguese seized control of the Strait of Malacca. Seizing this waterway gave them control of the Moluccas. These were islands so rich in spices that they became known as the Spice Islands. Portugal did break the old Muslim-Italian domination on trade from the East, much to the delight of European consumers. Portuguese merchants brought back goods from Asia at about one-fifth of what they cost when purchased through the Arabs and Italians. As a result, more Europeans could afford these items. • Beginning around 1600, the English and Dutch began to challenge Portugal’s dominance over the Indian Ocean trade. The Dutch Republic, also known as the Netherlands, was a small country situated along the North Sea in northwestern Europe. Since the early 1500s, Spain had ruled the area. In 1581, the people of the region declared their independence from Spain and established the Dutch Republic. In a short time, the Netherlands became a leading sea power. Pressure from Dutch and also English fleets eroded Portuguese control of the Asian region. The Dutch and English then battled one another for dominance in the area.

30. Closure Assignment #4 Answer the following questions based on what you have learned from Chapter 19, Section 1: What were the motives behind European exploration in the 1400s? Explain. In what ways did Europeans owe some of their sailing technology to other peoples? What did the Treaty of Tordesillas reveal about Europeans’ attitudes toward non-European lands and peoples?

31. Ming Dynasty • Ming – Chinese dynasty which overthrew the Mongols in 1368 and ruled until 1644; During the Ming Dynasty China gained control of Mongolia and strengthened the Great Wall militarily while building factories and introducing new crops economically and establishing a nationwide school system. • The founder of the Ming Dynasty was Ming Hong Wu (The Ming Martial Emperor). Under Ming emperors, China extended its rule into Mongolia and central Asia and briefly reconquered Vietnam. Along the northern frontier, the Chinese strengthened the Great Wall and made peace with the nomadic tribes that had troubled them for many centuries. At home, Ming rulers ran an effective government using a centralized bureaucracy staffed with officials chosen by the civil service examination system. They set up a nationwide school system. Manufactured good were produced in workshops and factories in vastly higher numbers. New crops were introduced, which greatly increased food production. The Ming rulers also renovated the Grand Canal, making it possible to ship grain and other goods from southern to northern China. The Ming dynasty truly began a new era of greatness in Chinese history. • Porcelain was one of the most famous of Chinese arts and an important trading export during the Ming and Qing dynasties. Blue and White designs on porcelain pots and plates were collected in great quantities by Europeans during the era. Ming porcelain artists studied nature to perfect their skill in painting traditional scenes. Blue-and-white porcelain pieces were created by artists who specialized in each step of the painting, glazing, and firing process. Jingdezhen is known as the porcelain capital of the world. Porcelain was made there as early as about 200 B.C. during the Han dynasty. When the Ming Dynasty was close to collapse, there was less domestic demand for porcelain; so Jingdezhen potters increased shipments to foreign markets such as Japan and Europe. Soon Chinese porcelain was in worldwide demand. • Improvements in agriculture during the Ming dynasty caused great changes in Chinese society. As Ming traders ventured into Southeast Asia, they acquired rice that produced much larger harvests. In the 1500s, American foods were introduced to China, including the peanut, the sweet potato, and maize (corn). The increase in rice production brought many changes. With a better food supply, peasants were now able to grow cash crops – crops produced for a profit – like cotton and indigo. As a result, manufacturing and commerce increased. Chinese silk, cotton, tea, and porcelain were in demand around the world, especially in Europe and America.

32. Hongwu • Commander of the Chinese rebel army which drove the Mongols out of China in 1368, establishing himself as the first emperor of the Ming Dynasty. During his rule, Hongwu attempted to restore Confucian values to China and eliminate all traces of Mongol culture. • Between1500 & 1800, China remained a mostly agricultural society. Nearly 85% of the people were small farmers. Nevertheless, the Chinese economy was changing. The first change for China involved an increase in population from less than 80 million in 1390 to more than 300 million at the end of the 1700s. The increase had several causes. These included a long period of peace and stability under the early Qing dynasty and improvements in the food supply due to a faster growing species of rice from Southeast Asia. The population increase meant that less land was available for each family. The imperial court tried to make more land available by limiting the amount wealthy landowners could hold. By the 18th century, however, almost all the land that could be farmed was already being farmed. Shortages of land in rural areas led to unrest and revolts. • Another change in this period was a steady growth in manufacturing and increased trade between provinces. Taking advantage of the long era of peace and prosperity, merchants and manufacturers expanded their trade in silk, porcelain, cotton goods, and other products. Despite the growth in trade and manufacturing, China did not develop the kind of commercial capitalism that was emerging in Europe. Middle-class merchants & manufacturers in China were not as independent as those in Europe. Trade and manufacturing remained under Chinese governmental control. Chinese society was organized around the family. The family was expected to provide for its members’ needs, including the education of children, support of unmarried daughters, and care of the elderly. • Hongwu used respected traditions and institutions to bring stability to China. For example, he encouraged a return to Confucian moral standards. He improved imperial administration by restoring the merit-based civil service examination system. Later in his rule, however, when problems developed, Hongwu became a ruthless tyrant. Suspecting plots against his rule everywhere, he conducted purges of the government, killing thousands of officials.

33. Yonglo • Hongwu’s son and 2nd emperor of the Ming Dynasty beginning in 1398; Yonglo continued many of his father’s policies, although he moved the royal court to Beijing. He also launched the first voyage of Chinese exploration commanded by Zheng He in 1405. • Cao Xuein, Author of The Dream of the Red Chamber, is China’s most distinguished popular novel. Published in 1791, Red Chamber tells of the tragic love between 2 young people caught in the financial and moral downfall of a powerful Chinese clan. The Ming economic expansion increased standards of living, providing many Chinese with money to purchase books. Also, new innovations in paper manufacturing encouraged the growth of printing throughout China. During the Ming dynasty, a new form of literature arose that evolved into the modern Chinese novel. Works in literary form were quite popular, especially among well-to-do urban dwellers, One Chinese novel, The Golden Lotus, is considered by many to be the first realistic social novel. The Golden Lotus depicts the corrupt life of a wealthy landlord in the late Ming period who cruelly manipulates those around him for sex, money, and power. • The ideal family unit in Qing China was the extended family, in which as many as three or four generations lived under the same roof. When sons married, they brought their wives to live with them in the family home. Unmarried daughters also remained in the house, as did parents and grandparents. Chinese society held the elderly in high regard. Aging parents knew they would be cared for in their home by their children. Women were considered inferior to men in Chinese society. Only males could have a formal education and pursue a career in government or scholarship. Within the family, capable women often played strong roles. Nevertheless, the wife was clearly subordinate to the husband. • Hongwu’s death in 1398 led to a power struggle. His son Yonglo emerged victorious. Yonglo continued many of his father’s policies, although he moved the royal court to Beijing. Yonglo also had a far-ranging curiosity about the outside world. In 1405, before Europeans began to sail beyond their borders, he launched the first of seven voyages of exploration. He hoped they would impress the world with the power and splendor of Ming China. He also wanted to expand China’s tribute system.

34. The Forbidden City • The capital city of the Ming Dynasty, Beijing, was rebuilt by Emperor Yong Le between 1406 and 1424. The Imperial City (known today as the Forbidden City) was built inside Beijing and was home to Chinese emperors for nearly 500 years. A complex of palaces and temples which is the most outstanding example of Chinese architecture during the Ming and Qing dynasties, the Forbidden City remains a symbol of Chinese isolationism and power. • The Imperial City is an immense compound surrounded by 6.5 miles of walls. It includes a maze of private apartments and offices, as well as stately halls for imperial audiences and banquets and spacious gardens. Because it was off-limits to commoners, the compound was known as the Forbidden city. • In a marriage in China, the wife could not divorce her husband or inherit property. The husband, in contrast, could divorce his wife if she did not produce sons. He could also take a second wife. Husbands were expected to provide support for their wives and children. In many cases, the head of the family would also be responsible for providing for more than just his own wife and children. • A feature of Chinese society that restricted the mobility of women was the practice of footbinding. The origins of footbinding are not clear. Scholars believe it began among the wealthier class of women and was later adopted by all classes. Bound feet were a status symbol. Women who had bound feet were more marriageable than those who did not; thus, there was a status incentive as well as an economic incentive. An estimated one-half to two-thirds of the women in China bound their feet.The process, begun in childhood, was very painful. Women who had their feet bound could not walk; they were carried. Not all clans looked favorably on footbinding. Women who worked in the fields or in occupations that required mobility did not bind their feet.

35. Zheng He • Muslim Chinese court official & navigator who led 7 voyages of exploration between 1405 and 1433, visiting Southeast Asia, India, and the east coast of Africa. From 40 to 300 ships sailed in each expedition. The fleets crews numbered over 27,000 on some voyages, including sailors, soldiers, carpenters, interpreters, accountants, doctors, and religious leaders. Everywhere Zheng He went, he distributed gifts including silver and silk to show Chinese superiority. As a result, more than 16 countries sent tribute to the Ming court. • Ming Hong Wu, founder of the dynasty, ruled from 1368 until 1398. After his death, his son Yong Le became emperor. This was after a four-year campaign to defeat the rightful heir. To establish the legitimacy of his rule, Yong Le built large monuments, strengthened the Great Wall, and restored Chinese rule and provincial authority over Vietnam. • During his reign, Yong Le also sent a series of naval voyages into the Indian Ocean that sailed as far west as the eastern coast of Africa. Led by the court official Zheng He, 7 voyages of exploration were made between 1405 and 1433. On the first voyage, nearly 28,000 men embarked on 62 ships. The largest ship was over 440 feet long (Columbus’ Santa Maria was only 75 feet long.) The fleet passed through Southeast Asia and visited the western coast of India and the city-states of East Africa. It returned with items unknown in China and with information about the outside world. The emperor was especially fascinated by the giraffes from Africa, and he placed them in the imperial zoo. • The seven voyages by Zheng He led to enormous profits, which alarmed traditionalists within the bureaucracy. Some of them held the Confucian view that trading activities were unworthy and that being a merchant was an inferior occupation. Shortly after Yong Le’s death, the voyages were halted, never to be revived. One can only guess what a difference it would have made if Zheng He’s fleet had reached the Americas before Columbus did.

36. Manchus • Manchus – A farming and hunting people who lived northeast of the Great Wall of China in the area known today as Manchuria, which is the extreme northeast portion of China. • By 1600, the Ming had ruled for more than 200 years, and the dynasty was weakening. Its problems grew – ineffective rulers, corrupt officials, and a government that was out of money. Higher taxes and bad harvests pushed millions of peasants toward starvation. Civil strife and rebellion followed. Northeast of the Great Wall lay Manchuria. In 1644, the Manchus, the people of that region, invaded China and the Ming Dynasty collapsed. The Manchus seized Beijing, and their leader became China’s new emperor. As the Mongols had done in the 1300s, the Manchus took a Chinese name for their dynasty, the Qing Dynasty. They would rule for more than 260 years and expand China’s borders to include Taiwan, Chinese Central Asia, Mongolia, and Tibet. • Many Chinese resisted rule by the non-Chinese Manchus. Rebellions flared up periodically for decades. The Manchus, however, slowly earned the people’s respect. They upheld China’s traditional Confucian beliefs and social structures. They made the country’s frontier safe and restored China’s prosperity. Two powerful Manchu rulers contributed greatly to the acceptance of the new dynasty. The first, Kangxi, became emperor in 1661 and ruled from some 60 years. He reduced government expenses and lowered taxes. A scholar and patron of the arts, Kangxi gained the support of intellectuals by offering them government positions. He also enjoyed the company of the Jesuits at court. They told him about developments in science, medicine, and mathematics in Europe. Under his grandson Qian-long, who ruled from 1736 to 1795, China reached its greatest size and prosperity. An industrious emperor like his grandfather, Qian-long often rose at dawn to work on the empire’s problems. These included armed nomads on its borders and the expanding presence of European missionaries and merchants in China. Closure Question #1: What factors, both within China and outside its borders, contributed to the downfall of the Ming Dynasty?

37. Qing Dynasty • Chinese Dynasty established in 1644 when an army of Manchus conquered Beijing and the Ming Dynasty; the Qing Dynasty ruled China until 1911. • After a period of prosperity and growth, the Ming dynasty gradually began to decline. During the late 16th century, internal power struggles developed. Groups worked to gain sole power and to place one of their leaders as emperor. Their efforts resulted in a series of weak rulers who were overpowered. Children, who had no control over their empire, were sometimes placed on the throne. Such internal power struggles led to a period of government corruption. High taxes, caused in part by this corruption, led to peasant unrest. Crop yields declined because of harsh weather. • In the 1630s, a major epidemic greatly reduced the population in many areas. One observer in a major city wrote, “There were few signs of human life in the streets and all that was heard was the buzzing of flies.” The suffering caused by the epidemic helped spark a peasant revolt led by Li Zicheng. The revolt began in central China and then spread to the rest of the country. In 1644 Li and his forces occupied the capital of Beijing. When the capital fell, the last Ming emperor committed suicide by hanging himself from a tree in the palace gardens. Many officials took their own lives as well. The overthrow of the Ming dynasty created an opportunity for the Manchus. They conquered Li Zicheng’s army in capturing Beijing in 1644. • Taiwan , an island just east of China, was taken by rebels against the Qing dynasty seized the island in the mid 1600s. Though the rebels were eventually defeated on the mainland, the island eventually became its own nation. The queue was a traditional Manchu hairstyle in which Chinese men shave their foreheads and braid their hair into a pigtail; To identify rebels the Qing dynasty ordered all males to adopt the Queue. When some Chinese resisted their new rulers and seized the island of Taiwan, the Manchu government prepared to attack them. To identify the rebels, the government ordered all males to adopt Manchu dress and hairstyles. They had to shave their foreheads and braid their hair into a pigtail called a queue. Those who refused were assumed to be rebels and were executed: “Lose your hair or lose your head.” • The Manchus were gradually accepted as legitimate rulers. The Qing flourished under a series of strong early rulers. The emperors pacified the country, corrected serious social and economic ills, and restored peace and prosperity. The Qing maintained the Ming political system but faced one major problem: the Manchus were ethnically and culturally different from their subject population. The Qing rulers dealt with this reality by preserving their distinct identity within Chinese society and bringing Chinese into the imperial administration.

38. Closure Question #2: Do you think Lord George Macartney should have kowtowed to Emperor Qian-long? Why? To the Chinese, their country – called the Middle Kingdom – had been the cultural center of the universe for 2,000 years. If foreign states wished to trade with China, they would have to follow Chinese rules. These rules included trading only at special ports and paying tribute. The Dutch were masters of the Indian Ocean trade by the time of Qian-long. They accepted China’s restrictions. Their diplomats paid tribute to the emperor through gifts and by performing the required “kowtow” ritual. This ritual involved kneeling in front of the emperor and touching one’s head to the ground nine times. As a result, the Chinese accepted the Dutch as trading partners. The Dutch returned home with traditional porcelains and silk, as well as a new trade item, tea. By 1800, tea would make up 80% of shipments to Europe. Great Britain hoped to increase trade with China. But the British did not like China’s trade restrictions. In 1793, Lord George Macartney delivered a letter from King George II to Qian-long. It asked for a better trade arrangement, including Chinese acceptance of British manufactured goods. Macartney refused to kowtow, and Qian-long denied Britain’s request. As the emperor made clear in a letter to the king, China was self-sufficient and did not need the British.

39. Kangxi • Qing Emperor who ruled China from 1661 to 1722; Kangxi was a strong military leader and a supporter of art and literature. He granted religious freedom to his people, allowing Christian missionaries to preach in the country. • Banners were Manchu military units which served as the chief fighting force of the Qing Empire. The Manchus, who made up only 2% of the population, were defined legally as distinct from everyone else in China. The Manchu nobility maintained large land-holdings and received revenues from the state treasury. Other Manchus were organized into separate military units , called banners. The Qing dealt with the problem of ethnic differences by bringing Chinese into the imperial administration. Chinese held more than 80% of lower posts, but they held a much smaller share of the top positions. Sharing of power won many Chinese supporters to the Manchus. • Kangxi was perhaps the greatest of the many strong emperors who ruled China during the Ming and Qing dynasties. A person with political skill and a strong character, Kangxi took charge of the government while still in his teens and reigned for 61 years. Kangxi rose at dawn and worked until late at night. He wrote: “One act of negligence may cause sorrow all through the country, and one moment of negligence may result in trouble for thousands of generations.” He calmed unrest along the northern and western frontiers by force. As a patron of the arts and letters, he gained the support of scholars throughout the country. • Qianlong was a Qing emperor who ruled China from 1736 to 1795; He expanded China to its greatest physical size & oversaw greatest economic prosperity during the Qing dynasty. Towards the end of his reign the Qing dynasty began to fall apart due to corrupt officials, high taxes, and peasant rebellion. As the emperor grew older, he fell under the influence of destructive elements at court. Corrupt officials and higher taxes led to unrest in rural areas. Population growth also exerted pressure on the land and led to economic hardship. In central China, unhappy peasants launched a revolt, the White Lotus Rebellion (1796-1804). The revolt was suppressed, but the expenses of fighting the rebels weakened the Qing dynasty.

40. Closure Question #3: What was Korea’s relationship with China under the Qing Dynasty? In 1636, even before they came to power in China, the Manchus conquered nearby Korea and made it a vassal state. As a member of the Chinese tribute system, Korea had long existed in China’s shadow. Koreans organized their government according to Confucian principles. They also adopted China’s technology, its culture, and especially its policy of isolation. When the Manchus established the Qing dynasty, Korea’s political relationship with China did not change. But Korea’s attitude did. The Manchu invasion, combined with a Japanese attack in the 1590s, provoked strong feelings of nationalism in the Korean people. This sentiment was most evident in their art. Instead of traditional Chinese subjects, many artists chose to show popular Korean scenes.

41. Closure Question #5 Answer the following questions based on what you have learned from Chapter 19, Section 2: What factors, both within China and outside its borders, contributed to the downfall of the Ming Dynasty? Do you think Lord George Macartney should have kowtowed to Emperor Qian-long? Why? What was Korea’s relationship with China under the Qing Dynasty?

42. Daimyo • Japanese warrior-chieftains who, between 1467 and 1568, seized control of old feudal estates, offering peasants and others protection in return for their loyalty. In this new kind of feudalism, security came from the daimyo and the emperor at Kyoto became a figurehead, having a leadership title but no actual power. • The new Japanese feudalism resembled European feudalism in many ways. The daimyo built fortified castles and created small armies of samurai on horses. Later they added foot soldiers with muskets (guns) to their ranks. Rival daimyo often fought each other for territory. This led to disorder throughout the land. A number of ambitious daimyo hoped to gather enough power to take control of the entire country. One, the brutal and ambitious Oda Nobunaga, defeated his rivals and seized the imperial capital Kyoto in 1568. • Following his own motto “Rule the empire by force,” Nobunaga sought to eliminate his remaining enemies. These included rival daimyo as well as wealthy Buddhist monasteries aligned with them. In 1575, Nobunaga’s 3,000 soldiers armed with muskets crushed an enemy force of samurai cavalry. This was the first time firearms had been used effectively in battle in Japan. However, Nobunaga was not able to unify Japan. He committed seppuku, the ritual suicide of a samurai, in 1582, when one of his own generals turned on him. • Nobunaga’s best general, ToyotomiHideyoshi, continued his fallen leader’s mission. Hideyoshi set out to destroy the daimyo that remained hostile. By 1590, by combining brute force with shrewd political alliances, he controlled most of the country. Hideyoshi did not stop with Japan. With the idea of eventually conquering China, he invaded Korea in 1592 and began a long campaign against he Koreans and their Ming Chinese allies. When Hideyoshi died in 1598, his troops withdrew from Korea. Closure Question #1: Why do you think that the emperor had less power than a shogun?

43. Oda Nobunaga • Daimyo whose forces seized the imperial capital of Kyoto and placed the reigning shogun under his control in 1582 A.D. Following his motto “Rule the empire by force”, Nobunaga sought to eliminate his enemies, including rival daimyo and Buddhist monasteries. He failed in his mission to unify Japan, committing ritual suicide in 1582 when one of his generals turned on him. • As the three great commanders were unifying Japan, the first Europeans began to arrive. Portuguese traders landed on the islands in 1543. In a few years, Portuguese ships began stopping regularly at Japanese ports to take part in the regional trade between Japan, China, and Southeast Asia. At first the visitors were welcomed. The Japanese were fascinated by tobacco, clocks, eyeglasses, and other European goods. Nobunaga and Hideyoshi especially found the new firearms helpful in defeating their enemies and unifying the islands under their rule. • A local daimyo, Lord Tokitaka, acquired firearms from the Portuguese almost immediately after their landing in 1543. Within a few years, they were being mass-produced in Japan. Lord Tokitaka was in awe of the new weapons: “To use it, fill it with powder and small lead pellets. Set up a small target on a bank. Grip the object in your hand, compose your body, and closing one eye, apply fire to the opening. Then the pellet hits the target squarely. The explosion is like lightning and the report like thunder… This thing with one blow can smash a mountain of silver and a wall of iron. If one sought to do mischief in another man’s domain, and he was touched by it, he would lose his life instantly…” – Lord Tokitaka. • One of Hideyoshi’s strongest daimyo allies, Tokugawa Ieyasu, completed the unification of Japan. In 1600, Ieyasu defeated his rivals at the Battle of Skigahara. His victory earned him the loyalty of daimyo throughout Japan. Three years later, Ieyasu became the sole ruler, or shogun. He then moved Japan’s capital to his power base at Edo, a small fishing village that would later become the city of Tokyo.

44. ToyotomiHideyoshi • Japanese farmer’s son who became a military commander of Oda Nobunaga’s army in the 1580s and moved the imperial capital to Osaka. By 1590, he had persuaded most of the daimyo (heads of noble families) on the Japanese islands to accept his authority. • European merchants were the next to go. Only a small Dutch (Netherlands) community was allowed to remain in Japan. Dutch ships were permitted to dock at Nagasaki harbor only once a year and could remain for only two or three months. The Tokugawa rulers established control of the feudal system that had governed Japan for over 300 years. As before, the state was divided into about 250 separate territories called hans, or domains. Each was ruled by a daimyo. In theory, the daimyo were independent because they were able to support themselves from taxes on their lands. In actuality, the shogunate controlled the daimyo by a hostage system. • The emperor and imperial court families were at the very top of the political and social structure. Next came the warrior class – the shogun, daimyo, samurai, and ronin. The shogun was supreme ruler below the emperor and distributor of the national rice crop. The local daimyo received land and rice from the shogun in exchange for military service. Samurai received rice from the daimyo in exchange for their services as advisers, castle guards, and government officials. Finally, the ronin were warriors who had no masters and who traveled the countryside seeking jobs. Below the warriors were the farmers, artisans, and merchants. Farmers produced rice and held a privileged position in society but were often poor. The artisan class included craftspeople such as sword makers and carpenters. Merchants distributed food and essential goods. • Japan was unified, but the daimyo still governed at the local level. To keep them from rebelling, Ieyasurquired that they spend every other year in the capital. Even when they returned to their lands, they had to leave their families behind as hostages in Edo. Through this “alternate attendance policy” and other restrictions, Ieyasu tamed the daimyo. This was a major step toward restoring centralized government to Japan. As a result, the rule of law overcame the rule of the sword.

45. Tokugawa Shogunate • Tokugawa Ieyasu, head of the powerful daimyo of Edo (modern-day Tokyo), took control of Japan in 1598. Ieyasu took the title of shogun in 1603, completing the restoration of central authority begun by Nobunaga and Hideyoshi and establishing the Tokugawa clan as the ruling authority in Japan. • Tokugawa shoguns remained in power at their capital at Edo until 1868, a long period that became known as the “Great Peace.”During this long period of peace the samurai who had served the daimyo gradually cased to be a warrior class. Many became managers on the daimyo’s lands. A major economic change took place under the Tokugawa. Since the 14th century, many upper-class Japanese, influenced by Confucianism, had considered trade and industry beneath them. Under the Tokugawa rulers, however, trade and industry began to flourish as never before, especially in the growing cities of Edo, Kyoto, and Osaka. • By 1750, Edo had a population of over a million and was one of the largest cities in the world. Banking flourished, and paper money became the normal medium of exchange in business transactions. A Japanese merchant class emerged and began to play a significant role in the life of the Japanese nation. What effect did these economic changes have on Japanese peasants who made up most of the population? Some farm families benefited by exploiting the growing demand for cash crops (crops grown for sale). Most peasants, however, experienced both declining profits and rising costs and taxes. Many were forced to become tenants or to work as hired help. When rural conditions became desperate, some peasants revolted. Almost 7,000 peasant revolts took place in the Tokugawa Era. • Hans were Separate territories, or domains, within Japan. During the Tokugawa Era there were about 250 separate hans. Under the Hostage System under the Tokugawa Shogunate each daimyo was required to maintain two residences – one in their own lands and one in Edo. When the daimyo left Edo, his family was forced to stay home as insurance for the daimyo’s loyalty to the shogun. Eta, the lowest social class in Tokugawa Japan, endured laws which regulated where they could live, how they could dress, and even what hairstyles they could use.

46. Haiku • 5-7-5-syllable, 3-line verse poetry originated in Japan under the Tokugawa Shogunate. Haiku poetry presents images rather than ideas. For example, Matsuo Basho, the greatest haiku poet, wrote before his death in 1694: “On a journey, ailing- / My dreams roam about / Over a withered moor.” • Matsuo Basho is viewed by many as the greatest Japanese poet. Basho wrote exquisite poetry about nature in the 17th century. Especially in the samurai class where Confucian values were highly prized, the rights of females were restricted. Male heads of households had broad authority over property, marriage, and divorce. Among the common people, women were also restricted. Parents arranged marriages, and a wife had to move in with her husband’s family. A wife who did not meet the expectations of her husband or his family was likely to be divorced. Still, women were generally valued for their roles as childbearers and homemakers among the common people. Women worked the fields as well, although men typically did the heavier labor. • In the Tokugawa Era, a new set of cultural values began to appear, especially in the cities. It included the rise of popular literature written by and for the people. The best examples of the new urban fiction are from Ihara Saikaku, considered one of Japan’s greatest writers. Saikaku’s greatest novel, Five Women Who Loved Love, tells of a search for love by five women. Those five women of the merchant class are willing to die for love – and all but one eventually do. Much popular literature of the Tokugawa Era was lighthearted and intended to please its audiences. Poetry remained a more serious form of literary expression. • Tokugawa culture was very structured. The emperor had the top rank but was just a figurehead. The actual ruler was the shogun, who was the supreme military commander. Below him were the daimyo, the powerful landholding samurai. Samurai warriors came next. The peasants and artisans followed them. Peasants made up about four-fifths of the population. Merchants were at the bottom, but they gradually became more important as the Japanese economy expanded.

47. Kabuki • A new world of entertainment in the city of Edo gave rise in the theater to Kabuki, which emphasized action, music, and dramatic gestures to entertain its viewers. Early Kabuki dramas dealt with the world of teahouses and dance halls in the cities. Government officials feared that exposure to these subjects onstage might corrupt the moral standards of its people. They therefore forbade women to appear on stage. The result was that a new profession was created – male actors who portrayed female characters on stage. • In Japan, as in China, Confucian values influenced ideas about society. According to Confucius, the ideal society depended on agriculture, not commerce. Farmers, not merchants, made ideal citizens. In the real world of Tokugawa Japan, however, peasant farmers bore the main tax burden and faced more difficulties than an other class. Many of them abandoned farm life and headed for the expanding towns and cities. There, they mixed with samurai, artisans, and merchants. By the mid-1700s, Japan began to shift from a rural to an urban society. Edo had grown from a small village in 1600 to perhaps the largest city in the world. Its population was more than 1 million. The rise of large commercial centers also increased employment opportunities for women. Women found jobs in entertainment, textile manufacturing, and publishing. Still, the majority of Japanese women led sheltered and restricted lives as peasant wives. They worked in the fields, managed the household, cared for the children, and each woman obeyed her husband without question. • Europeans began coming to Japan in the 16th century, during the Warring States period. Despite the severe disorder in the country, the Japanese welcomed traders and missionaries, from Portugal and later, other European countries. These newcomers introduced fascinating new technologies and ideas. Within a century, however, the aggressive Europeans had worn out their welcome.

48. Francis Xavier • The first Jesuit missionary to visit Japan, Francis Xavier, arrived in 1549. The Jesuits converted a number of local daimyo. By the end of the 16th century, thousands of Japanese had become Christians. However, after the Jesuits destroyed local shrines, Hideyoshi issued an edict in 1587 prohibiting Christian activities within his lands. The edict was at first not strictly enforced, and the Jesuits were allowed to continue their activities. Under Ieyasu, however, all missionaries were expelled, and Japanese Christians were persecuted. • The Japanese first encountered Europeans in 1543, when shipwrecked Portuguese sailors washed up on the shores of southern Japan. Portuguese merchants soon followed. They hoped to involve themselves in Japan’s trade with China nad Southeast Asia. The Portuguese brought clocks, eyeglasses, tobacco, firearms, and other unfamiliar items from Europe. Japanese merchants, eager to expand their markets, were happy to receive the newcomers and their goods. The daimyo, too, welcomed the strangers. They were particularly interested in the Portuguese muskets and cannons, because every daimyo sought an advantage over his rivals. • The Japanese purchased weapons from the Portuguese and soon began their own production. Firearms forever changed the time-honored tradition of the Japanese warrior, whose principal weapon had been the sword. Some daimyo recruited and trained corps of peasants to use muskets. Many samurai, who retained the sword as their principal weapon, would lose their lives to musket fire in future combat. The cannon also had a huge impact on warfare and life in Japan. Daimyo had to build fortified castles to withstand the destructive force of cannonballs. The castles attracted merchants, artisans, and others to surrounding lands. Many of these lands were to grow into the towns and cities of modern Japan, including Edo (Tokyo), Osaka, Himeji, and Nagoya. Closure Question #2: Why did the Japanese policy toward Christians change from acceptance to repression?

49. Closure Question #3: Do you think Japan’s closed country policy effectively kept Western ideas and customs out of Japan? The persecution of Christians was part of an attempt to control foreign ideas. When Europeans first arrived, no central authority existed to contain them. The strong leaders who later took power did not like the introduction of European ideas and ways, but they valued European trade. As time passed, the Tokugawa shoguns realized that they could safely exclude both the missionaries and the merchants. By 1639, they had sealed Japan’s borders and instituted a “closed country policy.” Most commercial contacts with Europeans ended. One port, Nagasaki, remained open to foreign traders. But only Dutch and Chinese merchants were allowed into the port. Earlier, the English had left Japan voluntarily; the Spanish and the Portuguese had been expelled. Since the Tokugawa shoguns controlled Nagasaki, they now had a monopoly on foreign trade, which continued to be profitable. For more than 200 years, Japan remained basically closed to Europeans. In addition, the Japanese were forbidden to leave, so as not to bring back foreign ideas. Japan would continue to develop, but as a self-sufficient country, free from European attempts to colonize or to establish their presence.

50. Closure Assignment #6 Answer the following questions based on what you have learned from Chapter 19, Section 3: Why do you think that the emperor had less power than a shogun? Why did the Japanese policy toward Christians change from acceptance to repression? Do you think Japan’s closed country policy effectively kept Western ideas and customs out of Japan?