Week 3

1. Week 3 Memory & Information Processing

2. The Nature of Memory What is Memory? nMemory nThe retention of information over time What is involved in Memory? nEncoding How information gets into memory Storage nThe retention of information over time nRetrieval nBringing information out of memory storage

3. Memory & Information Processing • In order to remember something, we must: • Encode (get info into our brain) • Store (keep the info somewhere safe) • Retrieve (get the info back out later)

4. (Kohn & Kohn, 1998)

5. Memory Encoding nRehearsal nThe conscious repetition of information that increases the length of time that information stays in memory nDepth of processing nDeep processing of stimuli produces better memory of them nElaboration nThe extensiveness of processing at any given depth of memory

6. Information is stored in: • Long Term Memory • Short Term Memory • Sensory Memory

7. External Events Sensory Memory Sensory Input Attention & Encoding Short-Term Memory Retrieval Encoding Long-Term Memory (Richarson, 1999)

8. Memory Storage nAtkinson-Shiffrin theory Memory involves a sequence of three stages nSensory memory nShort-term (working) memory nLong-term memory

9. Sensory Memory nSensory memory nA form of memory storage that hold information from the world in its original sensory form for only an instant, not much longer than the brief time it is exposed to the visual, auditory, and other senses nEchoic memory nAuditory sensory memory in which information is retained for up to several seconds nIconic memory nVisual sensory memory in which information is retained for only about 1/4 second

10. Working (Short-Term) Memory nWorking memory nA limited-capacity storage system in which information is retained for as long as 30 seconds, unless it is rehearsed, in which case it can be retained longer nMemory span nThe number of digits an individual can report back in order after a single presentation of them

11. Long Term Memory nLong-term memory nA relatively permanent type of memory that holds huge amounts of information for a long period of time

12. (Kohn & Kohn, 1998)

13. Memory’s Contents nDeclarative memory nThe conscious recollection of information, such as specific facts or events nCan be verbally communicated nNondeclarative memory nMemory that is affected by prior experience without that experience being consciously recollected nCannot be verbally communicated

14. Declarative Memory nEpisodic memory nThe retention of information about the where and when of life’s happenings nSemantic memory nA person’s knowledge about the world nGeneral academic knowledge, meanings of words, important places/dates, etc.

15. Representing Memory nNetwork theories nOur memories can be envisioned as a complex network of nodes that stand for labels or concepts nSchema theories nWhen we reconstruct information,we use existing concepts (schemas) to organize and interpret information

16. How Is Information Encoded? Automatic Processing “CAT” Automatic Processing Encoding Effortful Processing Effortful Processing “464-7765” (Richardson, 1999)

17. Automatic Processing Requires Little Or No Effort and Is Very Difficult To Shut Off

18. Effortful Processing Requires Extra Effort and Is Very Complex Encoding

19. Key Ways of Processing Info: • Meaning • Visualization • Organization

20. Emotional Memories nFlashbulb memories nMemories of emotionally significant events that people often recall with more accuracy and vivid imagery than everyday events nPersonal trauma nRepressed memories nMood-congruent memories

21. Encoding Meaning Semantic Encoding Is Best For Verbal Information Semantic Acoustic Visual Levels of Processing Verbal Info Semantic Acoustic Visual (Richardson, 1999)

22. We Encode Meaning MEANING of verbal information is encoded, rather than the exact word, wording or sound

23. Encoding Imagery Earliest memories involve mental imagery It’s easier to recall concrete words than abstract words Flashbulb Memories “Do you remember that time….?

24. Organizing Info & Encoding Meaningful Info is Easier to Encode Chunking Magical Number 7±2 “ciacnnabccbsnbc” ROYGBIV Hierarchies Broad Concepts First Details Next Class Notes (Richardson, 1999)

25. K Z R Q B T S G F Storage: Sensory Memory How do we know it exists? Sperling (1960) Immediate Recall of All 9 Letters Only about 50% recall Cued Recall of Specific Row (tone) Almost 100% recall Iconic Memory ~ 250 msecs Echoic Memory ~ 3-4 seconds 50 msec display (Richardson, 1999)

26. 100 80 60 40 20 0 J Percent of Ss who recalled consonants J J J J J 3 6 9 12 15 18 Time (sec) between presentation and recall Storage: Short Term Memory Task Remember CHJ (no rehearsal) Limited Time (rehearsal) Limited Capacity (7 ± 2) STM (Richardson, 1999)

27. 60 50 40 30 20 10 J J Percent of list retained J J J J J J J 1 2 3 4 5 10 15 20 25 Time (days) since learning Storage: Long Term Memory Ave adult brain has ~ 1 billion bits of info stored Capacity may be 1000 - 100,000,000 times greater How precise and durable are our memories? Forgetting Curve (Ebbinghaus) Much of what we learn we quickly forget (Richardson, 1999)

28. Memory Retrieval Serial position effect nRecall is superior for the items at the beginning of a list and the end of a list Primacy effect nSuperior recall for items at the beginning of a list Recency effect nSuperior recall for items at the end of a list

29. Where are memories stored? Lashley’s Rats - Trained rats & then removed specific portions of their brains Gerard’s Hamsters - Trained hamsters & temporarily “turn off” brain’s electrical activity Both the rats & the hamsters still “remembered” their training! Conclusion Memories do not reside in a single, specific location. (Richardson, 1999)

30. The Neurobiological Basis of Memory Memory Retrieval nTip-of-the-tongue phenomenon nA type of “effortful retrieval” that occurs when people are confident they know something but just can’t quite seem to pull it out of memory

31. How are memories stored? Aplysia - during conditioning: 1. More serotonin released at certain synapses 2. These synapses became more efficient Long Term Potentiation - prolonged strengthening of potential neural firing Serotonin Blockers Alcohol Boxing Shock Therapy Serotonin Stimulators Stress Emotions (Richardson, 1999)

32. Types of Long-Term Memory Explicit knowing you know Implicit not knowing you know Semantic Facts/General Knowledge Episodic Experienced events Procedural Skills Motor/Cognitive Dispositions Classical/Operant Conditioning Separate Processing & Storage

33. Remembering: Retrieval Cues Recall Retrieval of information previously learned Recognition Identification of items previously learned Retrieval Cues - help us to remember “hare” Web of Associations Priming Activation of a connected node (Implicit) (Richardson, 1999)

34. Remembering: Context & Mood Context Effect Memory increases if recall occurs in the same context as encoding.

35. Remembering: Context & Mood State-Dependent Memory increases if mood at recall is the same as retrieval Easier to remember something you learned in a good mood when you’re in a good mood again

36. Forgetting is a Retrieval Failure Some info may never make it to LTM Encoding Failure Some info may not make it out of LTM Interference Interference - learning some items may interfere with learning other items Proactive vs. Retroactive Interference (Richardson, 1999)

37. Forgetting Interference theory nWe forget because other information gets in the way of what we want to remember Proactive interference nMaterial that was learned earlier disrupts the recall of material learned later Retroactive interference nMaterial learned later disrupts retrieval of information learned earlier

38. Forgetting - Encoding Failure? Sensory Memory External Events Attention & Encoding Short-Term Memory Retrieval Encoding Long-Term Memory (Richardson, 1999)

39. Interference Proactive Interference Something learnedearlierdisrupts something learnedlater. Past Present Retroactive Interference Something learnedlaterdisrupts something learnedearlier. Past Present (Richardson, 1999)

40. Retrieval Cues Encoding specificity principle nAssociations formed at the time of encoding or learning tend to be effective retrieval cues Priming nActivating particular connections or association in memory

41. Retrieval Cues Recall nA memory measure in which the individual must retrieve previously learned information nEssay test nRecognition nA memory measure in which the individual only has to identify (“recognize”) learned items nMultiple choice test

42. Amnesia nAnterograde amnesia nAffects the retention of new information or events nDoesn’t affect information learned before the onset of the condition nRetrograde amnesia nMemory loss for a segment of the past but not for new events (Feldman, 1999)

43. Implicit & Explicit Memories Amnesiacs, incapable of learning new facts, can be conditioned to do new tasks They know things but don’t remember learning! Implicit Memory Knowing how to do something Cerebellum Explicit Memory Knowing that you know something Hippocampus

44. Mnemonics Tools for remembering things: Acronyms Analogies Story-telling (Mind Map, 2002)

45. Memory and Study Strategies nEffective strategies nPay attention and minimize distraction nUnderstand the material rather than rotely memorize it nOrganize what you put into memory (Mind Map, 2002)

46. More Effective Strategies nMnemonics nSpecific memory aids for remembering information nMethod of loci nAcronyms nKeyword method (Mind Map, 2002)

47. More Effective Strategies nAsk yourself questions nSpread out and consolidate your learning nCognitively monitor your progress nBe a good time manager and planner (Mind Map, 2002)

48. Taking Good Notes nSummarizing nOutlining nConcept maps nThe Cornell method nReview notes periodically (Mind Map, 2002)

49. The PQ4R Method nPreview nQuestion nRead nReflect nRecite nReview (Mind Map, 2002)

50. References • Feldman, M. (1999). McGraw Hill Company. Retrieved May 2002 from World Wide Web at: http://www.mcgrawhill.com. • Kohn, A. J. & Kohn, W. (1998). The Integrator 2.0. CD-Rom. Brooks/Cole Thomson Learning. • Mind Map. (2002). Retrieved May 2002 from World Wide Web at: http://www.mindmap.com. • Richardson, K. (1999). Retrieved May 2002 from the World Wide Web at: http://www.monmouth.edu.