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Exploring CPU and Memory Operations in Computer Architecture

Learn about CPU's ALU, control unit, registers, and memory management in computer systems. Understand the role of special-purpose and general-purpose registers and their operations. Dive into memory types like RAM and ROM, and grasp the concept of the Fetch-Execute Cycle.

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Exploring CPU and Memory Operations in Computer Architecture

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  1. The Architecture of Computer Hardware and Systems Software: An Information Technology Approach 3rd Edition, Irv Englander John Wiley and Sons 2003 CHAPTER 7:The CPU and Memory

  2. CPU: 3 Major Components • ALU (arithmetic logic unit) • Performs calculations and comparisons (data changed) • CU (control unit): performs fetch/execute cycle • Functions: • Moves data to and from CPU registers and other hardware components (no change in data) • Accesses program instructions and issues commands to the ALU • Subparts: • Memory management unit: supervises fetching instructions and data • I/O Interface: sometimes combined with memory management unit as Bust Interface Unit • Registers • Example: Program counter(PC) or instruction pointer determines next instruction for execution Chapter 7 CPU and Memory

  3. System Block Diagram Chapter 7 CPU and Memory

  4. The Little Man Computer Chapter 7 CPU and Memory

  5. Concept of Registers • Small, permanent storage locations within the CPU used for a particular purpose • Manipulated directly by the Control Unit • Wired for specificfunction • Size in bits or bytes (not MB like memory) • Can hold data, an address or an instruction • How many registers does the LMC have? Chapter 7 CPU and Memory

  6. Registers • Use of Registers • Scratchpad for currently executing program • Holds data needed quickly or frequently • Stores information about status of CPU and currently executing program • Address of next program instruction • Signals from external devices • General Purpose Registers • User-visible registers • Hold intermediate results or data values, e.g., loop counters • Equivalent to LMC’s calculator • Typically several dozen in current CPUs Chapter 7 CPU and Memory

  7. Special-Purpose Registers • Program Count Register (PC) • Also called instruction pointer • Instruction Register (IR) • Stores instruction fetched from memory • Memory Address Register (MAR) • Memory Data Register (MDR) • Status Registers • Status of CPU and currently executing program • Flags (one bit Boolean variable) to track condition like arithmetic carry and overflow, power failure, internal computer error Chapter 7 CPU and Memory

  8. Register Operations • Stores values from other locations (registers and memory) • Addition and subtraction • Shift or rotate data • Test contents for conditions such as zero or positive Chapter 7 CPU and Memory

  9. Operation of Memory • Each memory location has a unique address • Address from an instruction is copied to the MAR which finds the location in memory • CPU determines if it is a store or retrieval • Transfer takes place between the MDR and memory • MDR is a two way register Chapter 7 CPU and Memory

  10. Data Address Relationship between MAR, MDR and Memory Chapter 7 CPU and Memory

  11. MAR-MDR Example Chapter 7 CPU and Memory

  12. Visual Analogy of Memory Chapter 7 CPU and Memory

  13. Individual Memory Cell Chapter 7 CPU and Memory

  14. Memory Capacity • Determined by two factors 1. Number of bits in the MAR • LMC = 100 (00 to 99) • 2K where K = width of the register in bits 2. Size of the address portion of the instruction • 4 bits allows 16 locations • 8 bits allows 256 locations • 32 bits allows 4,294,967,296 or 4 GB • Important for performance • Insufficient memory can cause a processor to work at 50% below performance Chapter 7 CPU and Memory

  15. RAM: Random Access Memory • DRAM (Dynamic RAM) • Most common, cheap • Volatile: must be refreshed (recharged with power) 1000’s of times each second • SRAM (static RAM) • Faster than DRAM and more expensive than DRAM • Volatile • Frequently small amount used in cache memory for high-speed access used Chapter 7 CPU and Memory

  16. ROM - Read Only Memory • Non-volatile memory to hold software that is not expected to change over the life of the system • Magnetic core memory • EEPROM • Electrically Erasable Programmable ROM • Slower and less flexible than Flash ROM • Flash ROM • Faster than disks but more expensive • Uses • BIOS: initial boot instructions and diagnostics • Digital cameras Chapter 7 CPU and Memory

  17. Fetch-Execute Cycle • Two-cycle process because both instructions and data are in memory • Fetch • Decode or find instruction, load from memory into register and signal ALU • Execute • Performs operation that instruction requires • Move/transform data Chapter 7 CPU and Memory

  18. LMC vs. CPUFetch and Execute Cycle Chapter 7 CPU and Memory

  19. Load Fetch/Execute Cycle Chapter 7 CPU and Memory

  20. Store Fetch/Execute Cycle Chapter 7 CPU and Memory

  21. ADD Fetch/Execute Cycle Chapter 7 CPU and Memory

  22. LMC Fetch/Execute SUBTRACT PC  MAR MDR  IR IR[addr]  MAR A – MDR  A PC + 1  PC IN PC  MAR MDR  IR IOR  A PC + 1  PC OUT PC  MAR MDR  IR A  IOR PC + 1  PC HALT PC  MAR MDR  IR BRANCH PC  MAR MDR  IR IR[addr]  PC BRANCH on Condition PC  MAR MDR  IR If condition false: PC + 1  PC If condition true: IR[addr]  PC Chapter 7 CPU and Memory

  23. Bus • The physical connection that makes it possible to transfer data from one location in the computer system to another • Group of electrical conductors for carrying signals from one location to another • Line: each conductor in the bus • 4 kinds of signals • Data (alphanumeric, numerical, instructions) • Addresses • Control signals • Power (sometimes) Chapter 7 CPU and Memory

  24. Bus • Connect CPU and Memory • I/O peripherals: on same bus as CPU/memory or separate bus • Physical packaging commonly called backplane • Also called system bus or external bus • Example of broadcast bus • Part of printed circuit board called motherboard that holds CPU and related components Chapter 7 CPU and Memory

  25. Bus Characteristics • Protocol • Documented agreement for communication • Specification that spells out the meaning of each line and each signal on each line • Throughput, i.e., data transfer rate in bits per second • Data width in bits carried simultaneously Chapter 7 CPU and Memory

  26. Point-to-point vs. Multipoint Plug-in device Broadcast bus Example: Ethernet Shared among multiple devices Chapter 7 CPU and Memory

  27. Motherboard • Printed circuit board that holds CPU and related components including backplane Chapter 7 CPU and Memory

  28. Typical PC Interconnections Bus interface bridges connect different bus types Chapter 7 CPU and Memory

  29. PCI Bus Connections Chapter 7 CPU and Memory

  30. Instructions • Instruction • Direction given to a computer • Causes electrical signals to be sent through specific circuits for processing • Instruction set • Design defines functions performed by the processor • Differentiates computer architecture by the • Number of instructions • Complexity of operations performed by individual instructions • Data types supported • Format (layout, fixed vs. variable length) • Use of registers • Addressing (size, modes) Chapter 7 CPU and Memory

  31. Source OPERAND Result OPERAND OPCODE InstructionElements • OPCODE: task • Source OPERAND(s) • Result OPERAND • Location of data (register, memory) • Explicit: included in instruction • Implicit: default assumed Addresses Chapter 7 CPU and Memory

  32. Instruction Format • Machine-specific template that specifies • Length of the op code • Number of operands • Length of operands Simple 32-bit Instruction Format Chapter 7 CPU and Memory

  33. Instruction Formats: CISC Chapter 7 CPU and Memory

  34. Instruction Formats: RISC Chapter 7 CPU and Memory

  35. Instruction Types • Data Transfer (load, store) • Most common, greatest flexibility • Involve memory and registers • What’s a word? 16? 32? 64 bits? • Arithmetic • Operators + - / * ^ • Integers and floating point • Logical or Boolean • Relational operators: > < = • Boolean operators AND, OR, XOR, NOR, and NOT • Single operand manipulation instructions • Negating, decrementing, incrementing Chapter 7 CPU and Memory

  36. More Instruction Types • Bit manipulation instructions • Flags to test for conditions • Shift and rotate • Program control • Stack instructions • Multiple data instructions • I/O and machine control Chapter 7 CPU and Memory

  37. Register Shifts and Rotates Chapter 7 CPU and Memory

  38. Program Control Instructions • Program control • Jump and branch • Subroutine call and return Chapter 7 CPU and Memory

  39. Stack Instructions • Stack instructions • LIFO method for organizing information • Items removed in the reverse order from that in which they are added Push Pop Chapter 7 CPU and Memory

  40. Fixed Location Subroutine Return Address Storage: Oops! Chapter 7 CPU and Memory

  41. Stack Subroutine Return Address Storage Chapter 7 CPU and Memory

  42. Multiple Data Instructions • Perform a single operation on multiple pieces of data simultaneously • SIMD: Single Instruction, Multiple Data • Intel MMX: 57 multimedia instruction • Commonly used in vector and array processing applications Chapter 7 CPU and Memory

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