Common Impact Features of Victimisation

1. Common Impact Features of Victimisation THE 11TH ASIAN POST GRADUATE COURSE ON VICTIMOLOGY AND VICTIM ASSISTANCE (17 – 29 July 2011) Faculty of Law University of Indonesia Jakarta DR ROBERT PEACOCK CRIMINOLOGY AND CRIMINAL JUSTICE MONASH UNIVERSITY robert.peacock@monash.edu

2. Conceptualisation • To understand common impact features of victimisation we also need to understand: Who is the victim? • The identity and attributes of victims are often of a highly contested nature. See for instance Nils Christie’s (1986) celebrated stereotype of ‘the ideal victim’: idealised images versus empirical reality. • .

3. Christie identified six attributes to result in the conferring of complete, legitimate and unambiguous victim status: 1) victim is weak in relation to offender, 2) victim is, if not acting virtuously, then at least going about their legitimate, ordinary everyday business, 3) is blameless for what happened, 4) The victim is unrelated to and does not know the ‘stranger’ who has committed the offence’

4. (this implies that the offender is a person, rather than a corporation; and that the offence is a single ‘one-off) 5) The offender is unambiguously big and bad 6) victim has the right combination of power, influence or sympathy to successfully elicit victim status without being threatening (thereby not risking opposition).

5. Victimization is a highly complex process encompassing a number of possible elements: The first element (often referred to as ‘primary victimization’) comprises whatever interaction may have taken place between offender and ‘victim’ during the commission of the offence, plus any after effects arising from this interaction or from the offence itself.

6. The second element encompasses ‘the any change in self-perception that may result from victimisation. The third element consists of any further interactions that may take place between ‘the victim’ and others, including the various criminal justice agencies with whom s/he may come into contact as a result of this response. Where this interaction has a further negative impact on the victim, it is often referred to as ‘secondary victimization’.

7. IMPACT FEATURES • Victims of crime are diverse and the impact and response to criminal victimisation may vary widely as a result. • However, victimisation can lead to short term difficulties as well as medium and long term difficulties (this refers also to the plight of indirect victims as well as community life and broader society)

8. Victims of crime may suffer deeply from a wide range of physical, psychological and economic difficulties. Degree of suffering may be determined by different factors: Characteristics of the crime and offender Nature of victim-offender relationship Structural and individual – level factors of victim

9. Physical impact At the time of the crime, or upon discovering that a crime has occurred, victims are likely to experience a number of physical reactions: may include an increase in the adrenalin in the body, increased heart rate, hyperventilation, shaking, tears, numbness, a feeling of being “frozen” or experiencing events in “slow motion”, dryness of the mouth, enhancement of particular senses such as smell, and a ``fight or flight'' response, loss of control of bowel movements.

10. Some of these physical reactions may occur immediately and others may occur after the danger has passed – relates also to victim’s memory of the events. Victims may suffer a range of physical effects including insomnia, appetite disturbance, lethargy, headaches, muscle tension, nausea, and decreased libido.

11. Physical impact • Four General classifications of physical injuries: • 1) immediate injuries that heal but leave no long term trace (bruises, contusions, cuts and broken bones) • Not perceived very serious – same type due to accidents and mishaps – although some victims face more serious consequences – who?

12. 2) Injuries that leave visible scars (including facial scars, loss of teeth, fingers or toes and or loss of mobility – not considered catastrophic but may cause change in lifestyle, career. Examples? (a victim’s culture, gender, and occupation may influence their reaction to permanent scarring or disability. The reaction of others to the victim’s physical injuries may also be difficult to accept or become accustomed to). • 3) Unknown long-term physical injuries: potential exposure to HIV and other sexually transmitted diseases: may result in loss of life or change in life activities – sexual victimisation, domestic violence (internal injuries)

13. 4) Long term catastrophic injuries that restrict a victim’s physical movement – severe injuries often extended to change of lifestyle of other members (caregivers), may result in reduction in life span, changes in quality of life. After the crime, victims may suffer a range of physical effects including insomnia, appetite disturbance, lethargy, headaches, muscle tension, nausea, and decreased libido. It is common for these reactions to persist for some time after the crime has occurred.

14. Psychological impact • Initially, shock, disbelief and denial (may even pretend that it did not happen at all). • Reactions can last for a few moments or they may be present for months and even years. • Sometimes victims assume a ‘childlike’ state and may even need to be cared for by others for some time. • It is also common for victims to feel as though the crime occurred when they were in a dreamlike state.

15. Once the initial shock of the crime has worn off, victims may experience other emotions such as anger, fear, frustration, confusion, guilt, shame, and grief. With reference to violent crime in particular we can frame the general response into three broad categories: 1) Impact stage, 2) Recoil stage and 3) Reorganisation stage. The intensity and length of each stage will vary (according to level of physical injury and be filtered through age, personality etc).

16. Impact phase: Initial response: shock, fear, anger, helplessness, disbelief Recoil phase: Attempts to deal with effects of crime – emotions are varied and may include anger, sadness, fear and guilt, denial and emotional detachment – could be functional to some degree Reorganisation: Emotional intensity lessens, victim is more energised – does not mean victim no longer thinks about crime – some victims will never get over incident. To grief is normal and pathologising of normal reactions by mental health professionals can occur.

17. Emotional responses • Anger or rage – Victims may be angry with religion, the offender, service providers, family members, friends, the criminal justice system, or themselves. • Victims may experience strong desire for revenge. Hate may even felt by victims. • These strong emotions are often disapproved of by the rest of society, which can leave the victim feeling like an outcast. Is it justified for victims to feel anger toward the person or people who harmed them?

18. Fear or Terror – It is common for victims to feel terror or fear following a crime that involved a threat to one’s safety or life, or to someone else a victim cares about. Fear can cause a person to have panic attacks if they are ever reminded of the crime. Fear can last for quite some time following the commission of a crime and under certain circumstances, it can become debilitating. Fear or terror that becomes overwhelming is unhealthy and victims should consult as soon as possible.

19. Frustration – Many victims are frustrated by the feelings of helplessness or powerlessness that surface when the crime takes place. This can be especially true if victims were unable to fend off an offender, call for help or run away. After the crime, victims may continue to feel frustration if they cannot access the support and information that is necessary to their healing.

20. Confusion – Victims of crime may become confused if they are unsure of what actually happened, as crimes often occur quickly and are chaotic. Victims might also become confused while searching for answers to questions like “why did this happen to me?” It may be impossible to find out why someone else intended to hurt them – see the potential value of restorative justice.

21. Guilt or self-blame – Blaming oneself is common. Many victims believe they were “in the wrong place at the wrong time.” If the victim does not have someone to blame, they will often blame themselves. Guilt is also common when no offender is found. When reflecting upon the crime, victims might feel guilty for not doing more to prevent what happened. Some victims will experience ‘survivor guilt’ – feel guilty that they survived while someone else was injured or even killed. Too often, society blames victims as well.

22. Shame and humiliation – Sadly, some victims blame themselves, particularly victims of sexual abuse/assault or domestic violence. In crimes involving sexual acts, offenders often degrade the victim by making them do humiliating things. Victims of rape, for example, have long-lasting feelings of “being dirty”, and those feelings cannot be “washed away.” Some victims even feel self-hatred because they believe that they can no longer be loved by those who are close to them.

23. Grief or Sorrow – Intense sadness is often the most powerful long-term reaction to crime. It is common for victims to become depressed after a crime occurs (not necessarily clinical depression) Stress - When a person is under great stress, as many people are who are victimised, he or she may have more difficulty than usual thinking clearly, keeping their emotions under control, staying physically healthy, or behaving appropriately in social situations. The trauma of being a crime victim can impact on a person’s ability to function.

24. In some rare instances victims may develop Acute stress disorders, Post Traumatic stress disorder, Battered women syndrome, Rape Trauma Syndrome, Borderline Personality disorder, Obsessive-compulsive disorder, Addiction/substance abuse, Narcissistic personality disorder, Dissociative disorders.

25. The Financial Impact of Victimization • May certainly incur costs in the following ways: • - Repairing property or replacing possessions. • - Higher insurance premiums as a result of victimization. • - Installing security measures. • - Accessing health services. • - Medical expenses.

26. Participating in the criminal justice system, for example traveling to court, child care and attending the trial. Obtaining professional counseling to come to terms with the emotional impact. Taking time off work or from other income generating activities. Funeral or burial expenses.

27. In some cases, such as stalking, victims may feel a need to move, a process likely to incur financial costs. Property value may diminish as a result of a violent crime occurring in the house. In the long-term, crime can adversely impact the victim's employment. The victim may find it impossible to return to work, or their work performance may be adversely affected, resulting in demotion, loss of pay, and possibly dismissal. Particularly likely where the crime occurred at work (may be difficult for the victim to avoid people or situations)

28. Marital and other relationships are also likely to be affected by crime and this may have a significant effect on the family's financial position.

29. Conclusion • Research shows that the shock waves from victimization touch not only the victim but also the victim's immediate family and next of kin, neighbors, and acquaintances. • This holds true for the emotional and the financial consequences, and the effects can endure for years or even for a lifetime. • In the case of child abuse, exposure to violence, and abuse of power, the effects can be passed on from one generation to the next.

30. While this is to be expected in connection with offences such as murder, torture, and rape, the crimes of assault, robbery, and burglary can also leave enduring feelings of powerlessness, insecurity, anger, and fear. Communities and organizations can also be victimized leading to their deterioration over time.