Syntax

1. Syntax Lecture 9: Verb Types 2

2. Two argument verbs: a reminder • Each predicate is related to the appropriate argument • agent • theme • Two predicates • null one meaning “do” • lexical one with descriptive content Complex verb moves to support inflection Agent moves to subject position Lexical verb moves to support agentive verb

3. One argument verbs • What are traditionally called intransitive verbs do not behave uniformly • John smiled • He smiled an evil smile (cognate object) • John arrived

4. Cognate objects • The definition of an intransitive verb is one that takes no object • But some can appear with a very limited object which is ‘cognate’ with the verb itself • Cognate = having the same derivation • Latin: pater German: Vater English: father • E.g. • But not • Drink a drink • ‘drink’ is not really intransitive • It is transitive but can have an implicit object • He drank = • He drank something • He smiled  • He smiled something • Laugh a sinister laugh • Die a gruesome death • Sleep a fitful sleep

5. One argument verbs • What are traditionally called intransitive verbs do not behave uniformly • John smiled • He smiled an evil smile (cognate object) • John arrived • * He arrived a late arrival • There arrived a stranger (there construction)

6. There construction • In the there construction, what normally functions as the subject appears behind the verb, in object position • An article appeared in the magazine • There appeared an article in the magazine • The subject position is filled by there • A meaningless pronoun • The post verbal position is restricted to indefinites • The article appeared in the magazine • * There appeared the article in the magazine • Some things look like there constructions, but are not • There goes the richest man in the world • The subject is not meaningless but deictic • The object is definite

7. One argument verbs • What are traditionally called intransitive verbs do not behave uniformly • John smiled • He smiled an evil smile (cognate object) • * There smiled a man • John arrived • * He arrived a late arrival • There arrived a stranger (there construction) • In the post arrived a package (locative inversion)

8. Locative inversion • This involves the switching of places between the argument in subject position and a locative PP • At first this looks as though the PP is in subject position, but • In the post there arrived a package

9. Locative inversion • If this is the same structure, then there seems to be an empty ‘there’ subject in locative inversion • In the post --- arrived a letter • This is the only case in English where the subject of a finite clause can be empty, though we do find such things in other languages • (én) sétálok • It is possible that such null subjects are in part licensed by a condition of recoverability • We know the subject is ‘én’ because of the verb’s inflection

10. Locative inversion • The same could be true for the there subject • There is a man in the garden • There are men in the garden • As it is the subject which determines the form of the verb, there must have different features in these cases • The features of the there subject are determined by the post verbal argument • It follows that the there subject is recoverable from the post verbal argument in the same way that ‘én’ is recoverable from ‘-ok’

11. Locative inversion • It is an unsolved question why this only works with fronted PPs and not in all there constructions: • In the garden (there) stands a fountain • *(there) stands a fountain in the garden

12. One argument verbs • What are traditionally called intransitive verbs do not behave uniformly • John smiled • He smiled an evil smile (cognate object) • * There smiled a man • * in the theatre smiled a man • John arrived • * He arrived a late arrival • There arrived a stranger (there construction) • In the post arrived a package (locative inversion)

13. The difference between them • Verbs which can have cognate objects but can’t appear in there and locative inversion constructions are called unergatives • Verbs which cannot have cognate objects but can appear in there and locative inversion constructions are called unaccusatives • Unergatives have an agent argument • Unaccusatives have a theme argument

14. Unergatives • The UTAH says that there is a uniform position for each argument type • We have seen that agents appear in the specifier of an abstract agentive verb • This suggests that the analysis of an unergative is: • But the lexical part of smile has no argument • Is this something to worry about?

15. Nominal predicates • There are two types of nominals formed from verbs: • Those that refer to the process • Those that refer to the result • The building of a bridge • The building • Result nominals typically do not take arguments • So arguments seem to be something related to verbal things

16. Light verbs • Light verbs are fully meaningful verbs used in situations which do not make use of all their meaning: • He took a walk • He gave her a look • He had a quick peep • All of these verbs take a nominal as their complement • The nominal expresses the lexical content of the process (but has no argument) • The verb adds the argument (but not lexical content) • This is very similar to what we are suggesting for the analysis of unergative verbs • He walked • He looked at her • He quickly peeped

17. Cognate Objects • The analysis also provides a possible position for the cognate object

18. Unaccusatives • Unaccusative verbs have a theme argument • Themes go in the specifier of lexical verbs • Therefore the structure of an unaccusative verb is: • This accounts for the absence of the cognate object • The object position is already taken

19. The there construction • In the there construction the theme argument does not move to the subject position • Presumably it stays inside the VP • But the verb ends up in front of the theme • So it must move • The verb is in front of the theme even if it doesn’t move to the I position • There might arrive a letter • So there must be a verbal position between its original place and the I

20. The there construction

21. The there construction • This position must be a head position • This head cannot appear with unergatives • The agentive head is present with unergatives but not unaccusatives • So, this head position is in complementary distribution with the agentive verb • This suggest that the two are the same kind of verb, though they differ in meaning • Agentive = do • There head = ???

22. The there construction

23. Connection to the passive • Recall that the passive morpheme also stands in complementary distribution with the agentive verb • The passive morpheme is also in complementary distribution with the there head: unaccusatives cannot passivise: • * a letter was arrived • The passive morpheme and the there head both have no argument of their own • Unlike the passive morpheme, the there head licences a there subject • The there head selects only unaccusative complements • The passive and agentive heads select only transitive complements

24. 3 structures compared Agentive Passive There construction

25. Conclusion • Two types of intransitives • Unaccusative • Consists of • Lexical predicate with theme in specifier • No place for cognate object • No agentive verb • Can appear in there construction • Unergative • Consists of • Agentive verb with agent in specifier + lexical predicate • Has place for cognate object • Agentive verb in complementary distribution with there head • Can’t appear in there construction